CELL

Fundamental unit of life

REPORTERS:

Alliah Medina
Riza Morato
Frizelle Dela Torre
table of 01
Cell.
02
Types of cells: components.

contents:
03 04
Structure and basic functions. Protein synthesis.

05 06
Energy supply. Cellular digestion.

07 08
Support and movement. Storage and transportation.
 Cell
Basic and fundamental unit of life,
it possesses a highly organized structure that
enables it to carry
out its vital functions.
 Prokaryotic Prokaryotic
Dispersed genetic material
Lack a defined nucleus
in the cytoplasm.

Plant

Types Cellulose cell wall;

chloroplasts and vacuoles.

of Cells
Animal
Rigid cell wall;
may have flagella.
Eukaryotic
Have a defined nucleus
Protist
They can have a cell wall, without
differentiated tissues.

Fungal
Chitin Cell Wall;
they are heterotrophs.
 Composed of several fundamental components

Ribosome Rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Cell membrane Nucleus Golgi Apparatus

Lysosome and peroxisome

Mitochondria Chloroplasts Centriole Microtubules
Structure and basic
functions
These components work together to maintain cellular
homeostasis and perform essential life activities.
 Cell membrane

The cell membrane surrounds the cell and is a

selective barrier between the interior and the
exterior.

Its primary role lies in regulating the passage of

substances, including nutrients and waste
materials.

Within it, specialized proteins play a crucial role

in facilitating molecular transport and cellular
communication.
 Cell nucleus

An organelle that houses DNA, located in the

center of eukaryotic cells.

Its primary function is to store and safeguard

genetic information, controlling gene expression
and DNA replication.

It also contains the nucleolus, which is involved

in ribosome synthesis.
 Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is a gel-like matrix containing

water, salts, proteins, and other molecules. It
occupies the intracellular space between the cell
membrane and the nucleus.

It plays a crucial role in biochemical reactions,

energy production, and substance transport.
Essential for cellular metabolism, it provides
structural support to the cell.
 Protein Synthesis

Building and repairing cellular structures, regulating biological processes, and

expressing specific characteristics of each organism.
 Ribosome
Ribosomes are essential organelles for cellular
functioning and survival.

They synthesize proteins using the genetic

information from messenger RNA (mRNA),
which is crucial for cellular structure, function,
and regulation.

Ribosomes are located in the cytoplasm and the

rough
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Endoplasmic reticulum

A network of interconnected membranes that extends from

the nuclear membrane to the cell membrane. It plays a
fundamental role in the transport, processing, and
distribution of proteins and lipids within the cell.

There are two main types of ER:

• The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is studded

with ribosomes and is involved in the synthesis and
modification of proteins.

• The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)

specializes in lipid synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism, and detoxification.
 Golgi apparatus
Key in the processing and packaging of proteins and lipids
produced in the endoplasmic reticulum.

It synthesizes carbohydrates and lipoproteins and is

essential for maintaining the cell's internal balance and
facilitating communication with the outside.

Composed of a series of flattened sacs called cisternae, it

acts as the 'shipping center' of the cell, sorting and
packaging proteins into vesicles for transport and
distribution.
 Energy Supply

To carry out vital functions and necessary metabolic processes essential for the proper
functioning of the cell and/or organism.
 Mitochondria

Present in eukaryotic animal and plant cells. Their

primary function is energy generation through
cellular respiration (ATP production).

The double membrane of mitochondria allows for

the organization of various stages of the respiratory
chain, making it crucial for cellular function and
survival.
 CHLOROPLASTS
Exclusive to plant cells and photosynthetic
organisms, chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis,
converting solar energy into chemical energy.

During photosynthesis, they synthesize glucose

and other organic compounds using carbon dioxide
and water, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.

They are responsible for the crucial production of

oxygen that sustains
the planet.
 Cellular Digestion

It involves breaking down molecules and unwanted materials, enabling the recycling
of nutrients and cellular maintenance.
 Lysosomes Peroxisomes
They contain enzymes that degrade hydrogen
They contain digestive enzymes that break
peroxide and toxic compounds, thereby
down molecules and unwanted cellular
protecting the cell from oxidative damage.
materials.

They facilitate cellular digestion, by disposing Additionally, they play a role in the synthesis and
of waste, recycling nutrients, and defending degradation of lipids and bile acids, regulating
against pathogenic invasions. lipid metabolism and overall homeostasis.
Support and Movement

Maintaining cellular shape, enabling cellular movement

and division, are essential for its functioning and survival.
 Cytoskeleton

It is composed of protein filaments (microtubules,

microfilaments, and intermediate filaments) and
provides support and enables movement in
eukaryotic cells.

Its specific functions encompass stability,

intracellular transport, and contraction. Furthermore,
it regulates cellular shape and plays a role in
division, migration, and communication.
 Flagella and cilia

Specialized structures for movement. They are

elongated and enable locomotion in liquid
environments, whereas cilia are shorter and
create coordinated flow on the cell surface.

Composed of microtubules in a
'9+2' pattern, they are essential
for sperm motility.
 Storage and
Transportation
They manage nutrients, eliminate waste,
and regulate metabolic processes.
 Vacuoles

Membrane-bound organelles found in plant cells and

some animal cells. They store nutrients, water, ions,
and waste materials, regulating turgor pressure
and osmotic balance.

Vacuoles can also be involved in the digestion of

substances and serve as a defense mechanism
against predators
by containing toxins.
 Vesicles and endosomes

Membranous vesicles that transport specific

materials between organelles and the cell membrane.

Vesicles: They transport materials from the

endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus
to other destinations.

Endosomes: They capture and distribute

materials for degradation, recycling, or their
incorporation into metabolic pathways.
Thank you!
Any questions?
Life in four letters
Structure and function of DNA
Table of contents

Introduction to DNA

Replication

Genes and chromosomes

Genetic inheritance
 Discovery of DNA

Early mentions Key discovery Significance

During the mid-1980s and

early 1990s, scientists explored
In 1953, scientists discovered the The discovery of DNA's structure
trait inheritance in organisms
double-helix structure of DNA, revolutionized biology and
through experiments with peas
using data from other scientists. genetics, allowing for a better
and flies. However they were
This revealed how DNA stores understanding of inheritance and
not able to get to complete
genetic information. evolution.
undestandingof control
mechanisms.
 From a chemical perspective, DNA is a
polymer of nucleotides, in other words, a
polynucleotide. A polymer is a compound
formed by many simple units connected to
each other.
 Composition

Double helix structure:

DNA resembles a twisted ladder with two strands containing groups of four nitrogenous bases:
Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Thymine (T).

Base pairing:

The bases are paired in the helix, specifically A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
 P

SUGAR

Nucleotides
Nucleotides are the basic units of DNA, composed of a phosphate group (P),
a sugar (deoxyribose), and a nitrogenous base (A, C, G, or T) that encodes
genetic information.
 Basic functions of DNA

Information storage Replication

DNA stores the genetic information that DNA can make exact copies of itself,
determines the characteristics and functions of an which is essential for cell division and
organism. growth.

Transcription and translation Inheritance

DNA is transcribed into RNA and then translated DNA is inherited from generation to generation
into proteins, which control cellular activities. and is responsible for passing traits from parents
to offspring.
Replication
 DNA replication process

DNA replication is the process by which the DNA molecule is duplicated before a cell divides. It
begins with the separation of the two complementary DNA strands, followed by the construction
of new complementary strands from available nucleotides. It is essential for cell reproduction and
inheritance.
 Steps of DNA replication

Strand separation:
The two DNA strands unwind and separate, breaking the hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases (A-T, C-G).

Complementation:
Free nucleotides pair with the exposed bases on each strand, following the rules
of complementarity.

Formation of new strands:

Two new DNA strands are formed, one for each original strand, using the
paired nucleotides as building blocks.

Two DNA molecules:

The result is the formation of two DNA molecules, identical to the original,
ready for cell division.
 Importance in cell division

DNA replication is crucial during cell division (mitosis and meiosis) as it

ensures that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genetic
information. Without accurate replication, genetic errors and cellular
dysfunctions could occur.
 DNA, genes, and chromosomes:

DNA is the molecule that forms genes, and multiple genes are grouped into
chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus of every cell and contain all the
genetic information of an organism.
Genes and chromosomes
 Same, but different

Chromosome

Chromosomes are structures formed by DNA and proteins that

house multiple genes in the cell nucleus.

Genes

Genes are segments of DNA that contain instructions for protein

synthesis and determine hereditary traits.
Genetic inheritance
Where are we now? At present

DNA sequencing and genetic

19th Century engineering enable a deep study
of genes and their influence on
A scientist conducted experiments inheritance.
with peas that revealed patterns of
inheritance. However, he did not 20th Century
know that these patterns were
related to DNA.
In the 20th century, it was discovered
that DNA is the molecule that carries
genetic information. This
revolutionized genetics and biology.
 What makes us different or similar

This is the biological process through which

organisms transmit genetic traits, such as physical
traits and behavior patterns, to their offspring by
transferring genetic material, which may include DNA
or RNA in the case
of various organisms.

This transmission of genetic information

contributes to the continuity and diversity of
species on Earth.
 Genetic transmission
Inheritance involves the transmission of genetic information from
parents to offspring, determining characteristics in the progeny.

Diversity of traits

Through inheritance, biological traits are perpetuated

and diversified in all species on Earth.

Continuity of species

Inheritance is essential for the continuity and

adaptation of species over generations.
 Thanks!
Do you have any questions?
 Science and Technology 08

FROM ONE TO
TWO
An In-Depth Look at the Stages of Mitosis

Biology with Ms. Aguado

 LESSON OBJECTIVES

Understand the different stages Identify the key structures and Evaluate the importance of
of mitosis and their events that occur during each mitosis in the context of the
significance in the process of stage of mitosis. cell cycle and overall cellular
cell division. function.
 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered how living organisms grow, repair
themselves, or reproduce? The answer lies in the process of
cell division.

Simply put, cell division is the process by which a cell

divides into two or more daughter cells. All living things,
from the tiniest bacteria to the tallest redwood tree, depend
on this fundamental mechanism for growth and
development.

So, let's dive in and explore the fascinating world of cell

division!
 CELL DIVISION
Cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into
two or more daughter cells, each with the potential to grow,
develop, and carry out specific functions.

It is a fundamental process in biology that is essential for the

growth, repair, and reproduction of living organisms.

Cell division can occur through two main mechanisms:

mitosis, which produces two identical daughter cells, and
meiosis, which produces four genetically diverse daughter
cells.
 MITOSIS
Mitosis is the process by which a single cell
divides into two identical daughter cells. This
type of division is essential for growth and
repair in multicellular organisms, as well as
for asexual reproduction in some single-celled
organisms.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is the process by which a single cell
divides into four daughter cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Meiosis is critical for sexual reproduction, as it
allows for the production of gametes.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MITOSIS

Mitosis produces two The major purpose of Mitosis occurs only in There is no reduction in
genetically identical mitosis is for growth somatic cells, which the number of
daughter cells from a and to replace worn-out are all the cells in the chromosomes during
single parent cell. cells. body except for the mitosis.
reproductive cells.
IMPORTANCE
• GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
Mitosis is essential for the growth and development of multicellular organisms. It allows cells
to divide and multiply, leading to the formation of tissues, organs, and organ systems.

• REPAIR & MAINTENANCE

When tissues are damaged, such as in the case of a cut or injury, mitosis allows for the
replacement of the damaged cells with new, healthy cells.

• ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
In some organisms, mitosis allows for the production of genetically identical daughter cells,
ensuring that the offspring are identical to the parent cell.
 VOCABS TO REMEMBER

SPLIT CHROMOSOME
CELL CHROMOSOME

A cell is the basic unit of life A chromosome that has A chromosome is a structure
and the smallest functional and undergone a structural change, found in the nucleus of cells that
structural unit of living resulting in the separation of carries genetic information in the
organisms. the chromosome form of DNA.
 VOCABS TO REMEMBER

SPINDLE
CENTROSOME CENTRIOLES
FIBERS

A centrosome is a small organelle The spindle fibers are Centrioles are cylindrical
found in eukaryotic cells, which microtubules that separates the organelles found in eukaryotic
functions as a microtubule- chromosomes into two cells that are involved in the
organizing center. daughter cells. organization of cell division.
STAGES OF
MITOSIS
 Chromosome

MITOSIS:
PROPHASE
During prophase, the chromatin in the nucleus condenses into
visible chromosomes, which become visible under a microscope.

The centrosomes, which are responsible for organizing the

spindle fibers, move to opposite poles of the cell.

The nuclear envelope breaks down, allowing the spindle fibers to

attach to the chromosomes.
Centrosome
 Spindle Fibers

MITOSIS:
METAPHASE
During metaphase, the chromosomes line up along the
equator of the cell, called the metaphase plate.

The spindle fibers, which are attached to the

centromeres of each chromosome, ensure that the
Metaphase Plate chromosomes are properly aligned and can be
separated correctly.

Centrosome
 Spindle Fibers

MITOSIS:
ANAPHASE
During this stage, the sister chromatids of each
replicated chromosome separate and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers.

This results in the formation of two identical sets of

chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell.

Sister Chromatids
Chromosome

MITOSIS:
TELOPHASE
During telophase, the chromosomes reach the opposite
poles of the cell, and the nuclear envelope begins to
reform around each set of chromosomes.

The chromosomes begin to uncoil and return to their

normal, diffuse form. The spindle fibers disassemble, and
the cell begins to prepare for cytokinesis.

Centrosome
MITOSIS:
CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis is the process by which the cell divides into two
daughter cells.

In animal cells, a contractile ring of actin and myosin filaments

forms around the cell, contracting and pinching the cell
membrane until the cell is divided into two separate cells.

In plant cells, a structure called the cell plate forms along the
equator of the cell, eventually dividing the cell into two separate
daughter cells.
Contractile Ring
MITOSIS IS NOT JUST A
PROCESS OF CELL
DIVISION

it's a beautiful dance of chromosomes that ensures the

continuity of life.
THANK YOU FOR
LISTENING!