1

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY

By; Yitbarek wasihun (BSc, MPH, PhD Candidate)

yitbarek2003@gmail.com
 Learning Objectives

After completing this course, students will be able to:

Discuss the characteristics, and applications of qualitative research
Master the skills of collecting, analyzing and reporting qualitative data
Describe what mixed research mean and how it would be applicable in
practice
Describe what are the d/t types of qualitative research designs and
discuss their applications
Familiar with the different types of qualitative data collection methods
Trustworthiness of qualitative research
Qualitative data analysis
 Brainstorming
3

What is Research?

What are the importance of Scientific Research?

What are the Characteristics of Research?

 What is Research?
4

 Research is the systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of

data to generate new knowledge and answer a certain question or
solve a problem
 The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
 Research = Re + Search
 ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out
something

 Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable

 Importance of Scientific Research
5

In our efforts to maintain health and combating diseases.

Research helps us create new knowledge and develop proper

tools for the use of existing knowledge.

Not only does it enable health care providers to diagnose and

treat diseases,

research also provides evidence for policies and decisions on

health and development.

Wollo univerisity, Dessie 02/22/2024

 The Five key Characteristics of Research:
6

1. Systematic – research process

2. Logical – induction/deduction

3. Empirical – evidence based

4. Reductive – generalisation

5. Replicable – methodology.

Wollo univerisity, Dessie 02/22/2024

 Research Process…

7
 Brainstorming
8

What is a research problem?

What are the conditions exist for a potential research

situation?

What are Sources of Research Problem?

What are the criteria of selection of research topic?

 What is a Research Problem/s?

 A situation that needs a solution and for which there are possible
solutions.
 May be described as
 an incongruence; a discrepancy between what is and what ought
to be.
 the gap in knowledge that needs to be filled.
 All research is set in motion by the existence of a problem.
 Problem Identification/ Selection of the Problem

10
A potential research situation arises when three conditions exist:
 Perceived difference or discrepancy between what exits and the ideal or
planned situation
 The reasons for this difference should be unclear (so that it makes sense to
develop a research question)
 There should be more than one possible answer to the question or solution to
the problem

February 22, 2024

 Problem Identification
11

 Identifying problem/topic selection is the first step in research

process.
Research Topic: The broad general area expected to investigate.
Research Problem: A situation or circumstance that requires a solution to be described,
explained, or predicted.
 It is an unsatisfactory situation that wants you to confront.
 If there is a knowledge gap in an area that need to be investigated, the research
problem identifies this gap.
 Where as the research topic is simply a broad area of interest
 The research problem identifies what is problematic about that topic

February 22, 2024

 Example 1:Problem Situation:
12

 Assume in SWZ (population 1,000,000), there are 50 health

posts, 20 health centers and 5 hospital and all of them function
smoothly. However, at the end of the year it was found that the
EPI coverage was only 30%. In the Zone at least 85% of the
children should have had full vaccinations. Is this problem
situation researchable?

February 22, 2024

 Example 1:Problem Situation…..

13

Discrepancy: Although SWZ had 100% availability of health

services and at least 85% of the children should have had full
vaccinations, the EPI coverage was only 30% as seen above.

Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI

coverage in SWZ ?

February 22, 2024

Example 1:Problem Situation…..
14

Possible answers:

Mothers might have problems for not attending in the EPI sessions.

children might have missed opportunities in getting immunization.

The follow up of defaulting children might not be effective and

other reasons.

Conclusion

Thus, the above problem situation is researchable.

February 22, 2024

 Example 2: Problem Situation…..
15

 In South Wollo Zone a report showed that in the first month

there were 1000 children under one year old who started
immunization, but at the end of the year it was found out that
there were only 500 children who completed their vaccination.
In the SWZ, there are 25 health centers,5 hospital, and 50 health
posts. But only 20 health posts were functioning and the rest
were closed due to insecurity in the area. Is this problem
situation researchable?
February 22, 2024
  Example 2: Problem Situation ….
16

Discrepancy: All the 1000 children at SWZ should have

completed their vaccination but only 50% out of those who
started vaccination have completed.

Problem (research) question: why only 50% of the children

completed their vaccination?

Definite answer: Out of 5 hospital, 20 health centers and 50

health posts found in SWZ, only 20 health posts were
functioning, the rest were closed due to insecurity in the area.
February 22, 2024
 Example 2: Problem Situation…..
17

Conclusion : In the above example, assuming that all the given

information is true, there is no need of undertaking a
research, since definite answer is obtained to the problem
situation. So the problem situation is not researchable.

February 22, 2024

 Sources of Research Problem

Personal Practical
Consultation Experience
with experts Experience

Critical
Exposure to Appraisal of
field situations literature
Sources of
Research Previous
Folklores Problem Research

Existing
Intuition Brain theories
storming Social
Issues
 Criteria of selection of research topic

• Objective criteria

1. Relevance: priority, magnitude of problem

2. Avoidance of duplication
3. Feasibility: complexity, manpower, time, equipment, money…
4. Political commitment: interest and support to utilize results
5. Applicability (cost-effectiveness): availability of resources
6. Timeliness: urgency of data needed for making decision
7. Ethical acceptability
 Scales for rating research topics

1. Relevance
1= not relevant
2= relevant
3= very relevant
2. Avoidance of duplication
1= sufficient information already available
2= some information available but major issues not covered
3= no sound information available
3.Ethical acceptability
1= major ethical problems
2= minor ethical problems
3= no ethical problems
 Scales cont…

4.Timeliness (urgency)
1= information not urgently needed
2= information could be used right away but a delay of some
months could be acceptable
3= data very urgently needed for decision making
5.Political acceptability
1= topic not acceptable to high level policy makers
2= topic more or less acceptable
3= topic fully acceptable
 Scales cont…

7.Feasibility
1= study not feasible, considering available resources
2= study feasible, considering available resources
3= study very feasible, considering available resources
7.Applicability
1= no chance of recommendations being implemented
2= some chance of recommendations being implemented
3= good chance of recommendations being implemented
 Summary of the scales

Topic Rele Avoidance of Feasi Political Applic Timelin Ethical Total

vanc duplication bility commitme ability ess accepta score
e nt bility
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3
Topic 4
Activity

Identify 3 research problem(s) from any source

Prioritize these problems

Articulate the topics

 Exercise

25

Topic: RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIORS AND ASSOCIATED FACTORS AMONG

PEOPLE LIVING WITH HUMAN IMMUNO DEFICIENCY VIRUS
ATTENDING HIV CARE IN PUBLIC HEALTH FACILITIES OF DESSIE CITY
ADMINISTRATION, NORTHEAST ETHIOPIA
objective
Methods(Study design, population, eligibility, sample size
determination, sampling technique ,variables, operational
definition, analysis etc)
26

Introduction to Qualitative Research

 Brainstorming
27

What is Qualitative Research?

When is Qualitative Approach Needed?

Why Would you use a Qualitative Method?

 What is qualitative research?

All are somehow right

All are somehow wrong
Nobody was able to describe the entire reality

28
 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

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Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-

numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand
concepts, opinions, or experiences.
 gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for
research.
 effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the
values, opinions, behaviors, and social contexts of particular
populations.
 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH?

30
 When is Qualitative Approach Needed?

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…little is known or present understanding is inadequate

…learn from participants about their experiences (beliefs,
motivations, opinions, practices…)

…construct a theory from data

…understand phenomena deeply and in detail

 WHY QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

32

Human behaviours is significantly influenced by the setting in

which it occurs

More valid results based on research experiences.

Helps to understand what lies behind any phenomenon about

which little is known

It helps in identifying variables important to the phenomenon

under study

To understand the perceptions and experiences of participants and

 QR can help identify factors of interest for further study
or intervention
33

Problem: low levels of medication adherence among people with

DM2.

Qualitative study: How do patients with DM2 manage their

medications? What barriers and facilitators do they experience?

Intervention: Designed to alleviate particular barriers

Further Study: Assessing the prevalence of particular barriers

 Scenarios where Qualitative Research could help
34

1. An NGO has distributed bed nets to villagers, but it appears that they are
not being used.

Household interviews might help the NGO understand how beliefs about
efficacy, family circumstances or household priorities impact on usage
patterns.

2. Few women have attended a new service of VCT for HIV in your clinic.

In-depth interviews with health professionals and local women would

help understand the barriers to use
 Scenarios where Qualitative Research could help…
35

3. You are planning a health promotion campaign about hand

washing, to reduce diarrhoeal disease in a refugee camp.

Before designing the campaign, it would be useful to interview

residents to find out their current beliefs and practices around
hand washing, so your information ‘makes sense’ with in their
understanding
 Brainstorming
36

List Characteristics of Qualitative Research?

Characteristics of Qualitative Research
37

1.The Natural Setting

Qualitative researchers must physically go to the people, site, institution, or

field

2.The Researcher as Instrument

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research

because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through
their own personal lens.

3.Emergent Approach

Research question may change or be refined as researcher learns more about

subject under investigation
 Characteristics of Qualitative Research…
38

4.Interpretive Approach

Method for interpreting indirect meaning and a reflective practice for

unmasking hidden meaning beneath apparent meaning

5.A Holistic View

Broad studies rather than microanalysis or focusing on the relationship between

independent and dependent variables

6.Reflexivity and Subjectivity

Reflexivity – systematic reflection on how personal assumptions, biases, and

values shape a study
 Characteristics of Qualitative Research…
39

7.Use of Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning (from specific to broad) is more prevalent,

but deductive reasoning (from broad to specific) can be
appropriate
8.Strategies of Inquiry

Use multiple strategies

Mixed-method – combination of both quantitative and

qualitative research methods
 Qualitative Research Process
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 Brainstorming
41

Examples of topics &Questions that qualitative methodologies

can address
 Qualitative Research
42

¨ Questions like:
How do adolescents experience reproductive health services?
How do adolescents try to reduce their risk of pregnancy or STIs or
HIV/AIDS?
Why do health workers die from AIDS while they know its mode of
transmission and preventive measures?
What are the different types of family planning methods that you know?
¨ Ask WHY & HOW questions in different ways.
¨ Generates more refined questions in the field.
 Qualitative Research...
43

Examples of topics that Qualitative Methodologies can address

include:

“What are the factors that influence a graduate students’

experience in an online research methods course?”

People’s experiences of health needs, health care, accessing care and

keeping healthy.

How experiences, attitudes and life circumstances affect health needs

and behaviors of a certain population.
 List of Qualitative Research Topics Examples

44
Healthcare in low-income societies: How to achieve affordable
medical care
How quarantine prevents the spread of infectious diseases
Methods for mitigating communicable diseases
Practices for preventing the spread of the coronavirus in crowded
places
Alleviating pain during childbirth
Strategies for avoiding a viral disease
Ways to influence the eating habits of children
The effect of stress on human behavior
Patient behavior and the influence of social processes
 Example….
45
 Brainstorming
46

What are the major difference b/ne Qualitative and Quantitative

Research??

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative

Research??
 Basic differences between Quantitative and Qualitative
Research Methods
47

 Quantitative and qualitative research methods differ primarily in:

Their analytical objectives

The types of questions they pose

The types of data collection instruments they use

The forms of data they produce

The degree of flexibility built into study design

 Qualitative Research Vs Quantitative Research
48
 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Approach
49 Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Common research tools  Statistical analysis;  Interviews and focus groups;
surveys participant/non-participant
observations; video/photo/virtual
observations; documentary
analysis
Fundamental questions  What? Why (causal)?  How? Why (explanation)?
Underlying approach  Experimental  Naturalistic; exploratory
Researcher stance  Detached stance  Situated, involved stance
Sampling techniques  Random  Purposive; theoretical
Research context  Excluded  Central importance
Data analysis  Deductive  Inductive
Quality criteria  Internal and external  Trustworthiness and
validity; reliability; dependability; credibility;
 statistical significance
Researchers’ values  Excluded (influence  Included (formative)
denied)
 Advantages of Qualitative Research
50

Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility
• The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or
patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.
Natural settings
• Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
Meaningful insights
• Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions
can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.
Generation of new ideas
• Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel
problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
 Disadvantages of Qualitative Research

51

Qualitative research suffers from:

Subjectivity
• Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting
data, qualitative research cannot be replicated. The researcher decides
what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so
interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
Limited generalizability
• Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific
contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw
generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and
unrepresentative of the wider population.
Labor-intensive
• Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts
52

Applications of Qualitative Research

What are the applications of Qualitative Research ?

Applications of Qualitative Research
53

1.An idea generation tool

 To develop new ideas for the communications strategy
 To explore how messages are perceived by audience E.g. posters for
advertisement
2.A preliminary step to aid in the development of a quantitative study

 To develop hypothesis about the thought & decision-making

processes of the target population on certain issues
 To help identify the types of people to be interviewed in the
quantitative study
 Applications of Qualitative Research…
54

3. As a follow – up of the results of a quantitative study

Clarify unexpected finding
Understand why some behaviors wanes(decline)
Describe most important factors affecting attitude change
4. The primary data collection method

Some studies are not fitting for quantitative design

E.g. Perceptions, preferences, experiences and beliefs people have

55

Mixed Research Methods

Seminar
-What is Mixed Research Methods)
-What are the Rationales for Mixed Methods)
-Typology of Mixed Methods
 Mixed Methods Research

56

As defined by Tashakkori and Creswell (2007 p 4) as ‘research in

which the investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the
findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and
quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or a program
of inquiry’.

Mixed methods research allows us to triangulate findings, which

can strengthen validity and increase the utility of our work.
 Mixed Methods and Triangulation…

57

 Quantitative research can describe magnitude and distribution

of change, whereas
 Qualitative research gives an in-depth understanding of the
social, political and cultural context.
 Triangulation can bring strength to our conclusions or identify
areas for further work.
 Mixed/Complementary Research Approach

58

For instance, if you want to lobby for better access to health care in
an area where user fees have been introduced, you might first
undertake a cross-sectional survey which will tell you that 16.5% of
your population does not have access to care.

This is essential information, but you might also have a number of

other questions that the survey can’t answer very well, such as:

What are people’s experiences of user fees?

What other barriers exist to accessing health care?

 Mixed Methods Research Question Examples
59

 To what extent does the frequency of traffic accidents (quantitative) reflect

cyclist perceptions of road safety (qualitative) in Amsterdam?
 How do student perceptions of their school environmen (qualitative) relate
to differences in test scores (quantitative)?
 How do interviews about job satisfaction at Company X (qualitative) help
explain year-over-year sales performance and other KPIs (quantitative)?
 How can voter and non-voter beliefs about democracy (qualitative) help
explain election turnout patterns (quantitative) in Town X?
 How do average hospital salary measurements over time (quantitative) help
to explain nurse testimonials about job satisfaction (qualitative)?
 When to use Mixed Methods Research
60

 There are several common reasons for using mixed methods

research:
 Generalizability: Qualitative research usually has a smaller
sample size, and thus is not generalizable. In mixed methods research,
this comparative weakness is mitigated by the comparative strength of
“large N,” externally valid quantitative research.
 Contextualization: Mixing methods allows you to put findings in
context and add richer detail to your conclusions. Using qualitative
data to illustrate quantitative findings can help “put meat on the bones”
of your analysis.
 Credibility: Using different methods to collect data on the same
subject can make your results more credible. If the qualitative and
quantitative data converge, this strengthens the validity of your
conclusions. This process is called triangulation.
 What can we use Mixed Method Research For?

61
 Triangulation

62
 Triangulation…
63

It can be classified into four types:


Data triangulation – using a variety of data sources in a study,
which can help offset possible unrepresentative data

Methodological Triangulation – using a variety of data collection
methods (surveys, interviews, case studies), which can give the
researcher richer data
 Investigator Triangulation – involving multiple researchers in a
study, which can help to offset researcher biases in research design

Theory Triangulation – applying multiple theoretical perspectives to
data, which can yield analyses and approaches that reveal
alternative explanations
When should we use Mixed Method Research?

64

 When both quantitative and qualitative data, together, provide a

better understanding of your research problem than either type by
itself
65
 Steps to Approach a Mixed Methods Project
66
 Typology of Mixed Methods
(Reading assignment All MPH Students)
67
 Types of Mixed Methods Research Methods
Approaches
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69
70
71
72
 Qualitative Research Designs
73

2: Qualitative Research Designs

Describe what grounded theory is and discuss its application?

Describe what Phenomenology is and discuss its application?

Describe what ethnography is and discuss its application?

Describe what case study is and discuss its application ?

 Qualitative Research Designs…
74

Five major types of Qualitative Research Design are the most

commonly used. They are:

I. Grounded theory

II. Phenomenology

III. Ethnography

IV. Case study

V. Narrative research
75

1. Grounded Theory Design

 Grounded Theory
76

Developed for health-related topics by Glaser and Strauss (1967)

Logically consistent set of data collection and analytic procedures

aimed to develop theory

Start with individual cases, incidents, experiences and develop

progressively more abstract conceptual categories that identify
patterned relationships

Suitable for studying individual processes, inter-personal relations,

reciprocal effects between individuals and larger social processes
 Grounded Theory…
77

Purpose: theory development

 Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories
inductively.

Method : steps occur simultaneously; a constant comparative process

Data collection: interview, observation, record review, or combination

Analysis: concept formation, concept modification & integration

Outcomes: theory supported by examples from data

 Grounded Theory…
78

A key feature of grounded theory is the simultaneous

collection and analysis of data using a process known as
constant comparative analysis.

In this process, data are transcribed and examined for

content immediately following data collection.

Ideas which emerge from the analysis are included in data

collection when the researcher next enters the field.
Conceptual model created through GT: O’Brien et al. 2009
79
 Exercise using Grounded Theory
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Exercise Using Grounded Theory…
81
Topic: Sexual life and fertility desire in long-term HIV serodiscordant couples in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia: a grounded theory study.
Method : A grounded theory approach was employed using in-depth interviews among 36
informants in ART/PMTCT centers of three public hospitals, a health centre and one PLHIV
association in Addis Ababa. Theoretical sampling was used to recruit 28 clients who lived in
a discordant relationship and eight health care providers as key informants. Data collection
and analysis were undertaken simultaneously using a constant comparison. The analysis was
facilitated using Open Code software.
Results: A grounded theory pertaining to sexual life and desire to have a child among HIV
discordant couples emerged as “maintaining the relationship” as a core category. Couples
pass through a social process of struggle to maintain their relationship. The causal conditions
for couples to enter into the process of struggle to maintain their relationship were
collectively categorized as “Entering in-to a transition” (knowing HIV serostatus) and this
includes mismatch of desire to have a child, controversy on safe sex versus desire to have a
child, and undeniable change in sexual desire and practice through time were the features in
entering into-transition. Then after the transition, couples engaged in certain
actions/strategies that are categorized as “dealing with discordancy” such as entertaining
partner’s interest by scarifying once self interest to maintain their relationship.
82

 GT-Papare.pdf
83

2.Phenomenology Design
 Phenomenology Study Design
84

Purpose, goal:
to describe experiences as they are lived(examines uniqueness of
individual's lived situations)
Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and
interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
Method:
Seek persons who understand study & are willing to express inner
feelings & experiences
Describe experiences of phenomenon
 Phenomenology Study Design…
85

Data analysis:
Examine experiences beyond human awareness/ or cannot be
communicated
Outcomes:

Findings described from subject's point-of-view

Researcher identifies themes

Structural explanation of findings is developed

 Typical topics for Phenomenological study:

86

Personal (patient) experiences of:

Chronic disease and treatment of chronic disease (dialysis)
Death and dying, palliative care
Mental illness, depression, suicide
Disability
Childbirth, breastfeeding, motherhood
Drug addiction, detoxification
Health worker experiences of caring for people with chronic
diseases, terminal illness etc.
Example: Experience of First Sexual Intercourse
87
 Exercise using Phenomenological Study
88
89

 Phenomonological Paper.pdf
90

3. Ethnography Design
 Ethnography
91
Ethnography: is a flexible research method that allows you to gain a
deep understanding of a group’s shared culture, conventions, and
social dynamics. However, it also involves some practical and
ethical challenges.
Purpose: to describe a culture's characteristics
Methods: Identify culture, variables for study, & review literature
Data collection: gain entrance to culture; immerse self in culture;
acquire informants; gather data through direct observation &
interaction with subjects

Analysis: describe characteristics of culture

Outcomes: description of culture

The Steps of Ethnographic Research
92
I. Identification of the culture to be studied
II. Identifying significant variables within the culture
III. Literature review
IV. Gaining entrance
V. Cultural immersion
VI. Acquiring informants
VII. Gathering data
VIII. Analysis of data
IX. Description of the culture
X. Theory development
 Exercise Using Ethnography Study
93
94

4.Case Study
 Case study…

95

Case study is “a qualitative study in which the investigator explores

a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over
time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple
sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audio-visual
material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description
and case-based themes.” (Creswell, 2005; p. 73)

Examples of cases studied can be: a particular program, a school, an

individual student, a course, a legal case, an event, etc.
 Case study
96

Purpose - describe in-depth the experience of one person, family,

group, community, or institution

Method-Direct observation and interaction with subject

Analysis - synthesis of experience

Outcomes - in-depth description of the experience

 Cases can be…
97

An illness episode

A pregnancy

A particular event as experienced by many people

The experience of an organization or program

Elements of a case Study
98

The problem

The context

Chronological presentation

The “lessons learned”

 Exercise Using case Study
99
Case Study: What are the barriers to accessing surgery for cataracts? 1

100

Although affordable surgery for cataracts is provided by an Eye Care Programme in a rural
part of KwaZulu-Natal, researchers found that uptake was low, and that two-thirds of those
who were blind or sight impaired from cataracts had not had surgery.
Alan Rotchford and colleagues wanted to understand why elderly people in this area might
not take up surgery. They interviewed 20 people who had been invited for surgery, but did
not attend, asking them about the impact of poor vision on their lives, their beliefs about
blindness and its treatment, and views of surgery.
The interviews revealed a number of fears about surgery: that it would make vision worse, or
might kill them. Many thought blindness was an inevitable risk of getting older. Most
significantly, however, the interviewees did not share the researchers’ perspectives of
blindness as a disability. Living in secure and predictable environments with extended
families, they did not in general see their blindness as a ‘burden’. The impact of sight
disability was not as debilitating as it might be in other environments.
This study illustrates the value of qualitative methods. It identified some beliefs about
surgery that were different from those of professionals, and also some more fundamental
reasons why surgery might not be a priority: i.e. poor eyesight was not as devastating a
disability as assumed by the researchers
101

5.Narrative Research
 Narrative Research
102

Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how

participants perceive and make sense of their experiences
 Qualitative methods approaches: illustrations using breast
cancer
103
104

Summary of Qualitative Research Designs

 Qualitative Approaches/Designs
105
Characteristics of five Qualitative Approaches/Designs
106
Characteristics of five Qualitative Approaches/Designs…
107
 Summary Questions Narrative
108
 Following are examples of research questions for each type of
Phenomenology
approach.
 A study of the life of Mother Theresa.
Grounded
 What is it like to be an inmate in a penitentiary? Theory
 A description of the relationship between a doctorEthnography
and a nurse.
 A study of people living in Argoba.
 The effects of the flipped classroom teaching style on the motivation
Case S
of middle school students in Dessie preparatory school
109

3: Sample Size and Sampling Methods in

Qualitative Research
 Sample size and sampling methods in qualitative
research
110

Discuss how to determine sample size in qualitative

studies

Describe sampling methods in qualitative studies

 Sample Size in Qualitative Research

111

Too small

 Does not achieve informational redundancy or theoretical saturation

Too big

 Cannot manage and facilitate the analysis

Just right!

 Get the most (information) from the least (number of people)

112

With careful sampling and equally careful collection

techniques, a surprisingly small number of interviews,
narratives or focus groups can yield the data to answer
your research question
 Sample Size in Qualitative Research

113

No hard and fast rules.

Sample size depends on:
• Purpose of the research.
• Specific research questions.
• Available time and resources.
Selection continues to the point of redundancy (Saturation point).

Guiding Principle is that of, DATA SATURATION: sampling to

the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy
is achieved
 Sampling in Qualitative Research

114

“Participants are not recruited on a representative basis, but rather

because of their expert knowledge of the phenomenon under inquiry”
(Green & Thorogood, 2005)
Purposeful sampling
• Seeking the best sources of information about the phenomenon of
interest
Theoretical sampling
• Seeking the best sources of information to confirm / disconfirm
your developing explanatory model
 Sample Size in Qualitative Research
115
 Approaches to determining sample size
116

. Rules of thumb
A number of authors have proposed rules of thumb for sample
size in qualitative research, based on methodological
considerations and past experience with similar studies
 Approaches to Determining Sample Size(Rules of
Thumb)
117
 Qualitative Research Sampling Methods

118

Sampling in qualitative research is non-probability

sampling.
Purposeful sampling is widely used in qualitative research for the
identification and selection of information-rich cases(selecting study
subjects for their ability to generate rich information)related to the

phenomenon of interest

Purposive sampling in qualitative research can be achieved through

different techniques:
 What is purposive sampling?
119

Purposive sampling, one of the most common sampling strategies,

groups participants according to preselected criteria relevant to a
particular research question (for example, HIV-positive women in
Capital City).
Sample sizes, which may or may not be fixed prior to data
collection, depend on the resources and time available, as well as
the study’s objectives.
Purposive sample sizes are often determined on the basis of
theoretical saturation (the point in data collection when new data
no longer bring additional insights to the research questions).
Purposive sampling is therefore most successful when data review
and analysis are done in conjunction with data collection.
120
121

4.Qualitative Data Collection Methods

 Presentation Day-Three
122

Describe Focus group Discussion and discuss its

steps?

Describe In-depth interviews and discuss its steps?

Describe Observation is and discuss its steps?

Data Collection Methods in Qualitative Studies
6-
123

Three data collection Methods introduced(Most):

Focus group Discussion

In-depth interviews

Observation/ Participant/non Participant

Qualitative researchers may combine more than one method

 Our techniques should aim to be:
124

Reproducible: that is, someone else could use the same topic guide to

generate similar information;

Systematic: to ensure that we are not just picking interviewees or data

that support our pre-existing ideas about the answers;

Credible: the questions we ask, for instance, and the ways in which
we ask them should be reasonable ones for generating valid (or
‘truthful’) accounts of phenomena.
Transparent: methods should be written up so that readers can see
exactly how the data were collected and analysed.
125

1.Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

 Brainstorming
126

What is FGD?

Number of sessions?

Group composition of FGD?

Number of people per Group?

Seating Arrangements?

Roles of Moderator and recorders?

What are the Steps for Conducting FGD?

What is FGD Guides?

 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

 FGD Definition: “a research technique that collects data through group

interaction on a topic determined by the researcher” (pg. 263)

The most widely used technique

Primarily concerned with data collection

Group discussion are the source of the data

The researcher plays an active role

The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on

concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group
 Group Composition of FGD
128

6-12 people
Homogeneous
• Diversity inhibits free
discussion
Group composition influence
group interaction
Moderator/recorder
1 to 1½ hr
 Focus Group Discussion
129

 Individuals assembled by a
researcher
 Discussion from experience
 Group interaction between
the participants
 No right/wrong answer
 Focus Groups might be used to -
130

Explore new research areas;

Explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain access);

Explore a topic that does not lend itself to observational techniques (e.g. attitudes
and decision making);

Collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time span;

Ascertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic,;

Gather preliminary data;

Aid in the development of surveys and interview guides;

 FGD techniques be used to:
131

1.Focus research and develop relevant research hypotheses by

exploring in greater depth the problem to be investigated and its
possible causes.
Example: A district health officer had noticed that there were an
unusually large number of cases of malnutrition of children under 5
reported from one area in her district. Because she had little idea of
why there might be more malnutrition in that area she decided to
organise three focus group discussions (one with leaders, one with
mothers from the area and one with health staff from the area). She
hoped to identify potential causes of the problem through the FGDs
and then develop a more intensive study, if necessary.
 FGD techniques be used to:
132

2. Formulate appropriate questions for more structured, larger

scale surveys.
Example: In planning a study of the incidence of childhood
diarrhoea and feeding practices, a focus group discussion showed
that in the community under study, children below the age of 1 year
were not perceived as having ‘bouts of diarrhoea’ but merely
‘having loose stools’ that were associated with milestones such as
sitting up, crawling, and teething. In the questionnaire that was
developed after the FGD the concept ‘diarrhoea’ was therefore
carefully described, using the community’s notions and terms.
 FGD techniques be used to:
133

3.Help understand and solve unexpected problems in interventions.

Example: In District X, the recent national (polio) immunisation days (NID) showed
widely different coverage’s per village (50-90%) and in a number of villages a marked
decrease in coverage was observed compared to last year.
Eight FGD were held with mothers, two in town, three in rural villages with a marked
decrease in NID coverage and three in villages with a high coverage throughout. It
appeared that overall, the concept NID had raised confusion. Most people believed
that this mass campaign strengthened the children’s immunity against any (childhood)
disease, including malaria and Respiratory Tract Infections.
In the villages with a low NID coverage there had been a high incidence of malaria in
children immediately after the previous NID campaign and several children died.
Mothers therefore believed that the NID campaign was useless.
 FGD techniques be used to:
134

4. Develop appropriate messages for health education programmes and

later evaluate the messages for clarity.
Example: The focus group discussion could be used for exploring relevant
local concepts as well as for testing drafts when developing the messages
5.Explore controversial topics.
Example: Sexual behaviour is a controversial topic in the sense
that males and females judge sexual relations and sexuality often
from very different perspectives.
Through FGDs, first with females, then with males, and then with a
mixed group to confront both sexes with the different outcomes of
the separate discussions it becomes easier to bring these differences
in the open.
Things that aren’t focus groups

Group discussions not intended for research

Non-interactive group research

Discussions not directed by the researcher

Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)

136

STEP 1: Plan the entire FGD

What activities need to be planned?
Is there the need for a resource person.
Role of resource person in training field staff.
STEP 2: Decide what types of groups are needed
Method of sampling (selection criteria);
Composition of groups
Number of groups ;
Group size
Contacting and informing participants.
STEP 3: Select moderator and field team
Field staff requirements ; Moderator ; Observer/recorder
Other staff
 Preparing for the Focus Group Discussion

137

 Facilitation Team(FG with 2 Facilitators)

 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

138

STEP 4: Develop moderator’s guide and format for

recording responses
Structure and sequence of topics
Wording of guide
Number of topics
Example of an FGD guide.
 The topic guide

139

 This is a more or less structured interview schedule for the

discussion.
 Generally, the order of questions should be as follows:
 Early questions should be directly related to topic of research.
 Most relevant/interesting questions should be asked as soon as
possible to interest interviewee
 Embarrassing/sensitive questions should be left till later
 Put general questions before specific ones
 Designing FG Guide

140
These are some of the questions used in a guide for focus group discussions as part of a study looking at sexual violence.

141

1) What problems have women and girls experienced in health and security in your community?
2) Can you give examples of sexual violence in the camps?
3) When and where does violence occur?
4) Who are the perpetrators (PROBE: inside / outside the camp, people you know/don’t know).
What happens to the perpetrators?
5) What are the problems that face women after the attack? (PROBE: physical / psychological /
social problems)
6) How do survivors of sexual violence cope after the attack?
7) What are community responses when sexual violence occurs? What is done to prevent
violence? What is done to help survivors? How could these efforts be improved?
8) What social and legal services exist to help to address these problems? Who provides these
services? How could they be improved?
9) Has the problem of sexual violence become worse, better or stayed the same?
10) Is there anything else you’d like to say about sexual violence?
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…
142

STEP 5: Train field team and conduct pilot test

Theory sessions
Practice sessions
On-going revision of FGD guide

STEP 6: Prepare for the individual FGDs

Site selection and location for FGD
Date and time
Plan for supporting materials or FGD checklist.
 Logistics: Space

143
 Logistics: Time

144
 Logistics: Recording

145
 Setting Ground Rules for FG

146

Confidentiality:
Try not to use names or tell personal stories
What happens in FG stays in FG
Try to use words that people will understand
Respect other people’s opinions
Speak one at a time (and also speak loudly for the
recording)
Turn off cell phones
“Is there anything we should add?”
 Selecting the Participants
147

Focus group discussions involve six to eight people on average.

Creating homogeneity in the FGD group can help participants feel more
comfortable expressing their opinions.
Consider the following when you are choosing your participants:
• Gender: Will men and women feel comfortable discussing this topic in a
mixed-gender group? For example, women might feel uncomfortable discussing
maternal health if men are in the group.
• Age: Will age affect the way that people react to this topic? For example, a
young person might feel uncomfortable talking about his drinking habits if older
people from his community are in the room.
• Hierarchy: Will people of different hierarchical positions be able to discuss this
topic equally? For example, a student might feel uncomfortable discussing her
teachers if the school principal is in the FGD.
Certain criteria should be set up front and used to screen potential FGD
participants.
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

148

Functions of the Facilitator:

Introduce the session –
Encourage discussion – Facilitator should react neutrally to both verbal and
nonverbal responses.
Encourage involvement - Using person’s name, requesting
his/her opinion, making more frequent eye contact to encourage
participation
Avoid being placed in the role of expert –
Control the timing of the meeting
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

149

STEP 7: Conduct the FGD

Conducting the Discussion; Introduction ; Warm-up; Discussion
Wrap-up summary
Member check and FG/Peer -Debriefing
Collecting and managing information in FGD
150
 Length of the Focus Group Discussion

151

An FGD should be between 60 and 90 minutes.

If the FGD is shorter than 60 minutes, it is often difficult to fully

explore the discussion topic.

If the FGD is longer than 90 minutes, the discussion can become

unproductive (as participants get weary) and the discussion can start
to impose on participants’ time.
 Strategies to keep people engaged

152

Treat your participants as experts

Keep the conversation flowing smoothly

-Managing dominant talkers
-Encourage quieter people to speak
-Allow people to respond to each other, not just the
facilitator
153
 Items to be Recorded Include (FGD)

154

Date, time, place

Names and characteristics of participants
General description of the group dynamics (level of participation,
presence of a dominant participant, level of interest)
Opinions of participants, recorded as much as possible in their
own words
Emotional aspects
Vocabulary used – (to use it in developing questionnaires or
health education materials)
Spontaneous relevant discussions during breaks or after the
meeting has been closed
 Number of FGD Sessions

155

It depends upon project needs, resources, and whether new

information is still coming from the sessions (Saturation)

One should plan to conduct at least two FGDs for each sub-group
(for example, two for males and two for females)

Otherwise you have no way of assessing whether the information

you get from the first FGD is representative for that group
 Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)…

156

STEP 8: Analyze and interpret FGD results

How much analysis is required
Debriefing;
Notes;
Transcripts; and log book
Writing the report
Interpretation of findings
 Advantages of FGD
157

Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they –

Are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs;

Can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and
how is influences their beliefs and values;

Can be used to explore complex issues;

Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;

Do not require participants to be literate.

 Disvantages of FGD
158

Disadvantages of focus groups include –

Lack of privacy/anonymity;
Potential for the risk of ‘group think’ (not allowing for other
attitudes, beliefs etc.);
dominated by one or two people;
Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups,
dealing with conflict, drawing out passive participants and
creating a relaxed, welcoming environment;
Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time
consuming to analyze.
159

 FGD FINAL.docx
160

2.In-depth Interview
What is an In-depth Interview?
When to use an In-depth Interview?
Stages of Interview Investigation?
What are the Interviewer qualities?
Steps for conducting the Interview?
 In-depth Interviews

Face to face conversation to

explore issues in more detail

Last for 30-90 minutes

Use of open ended questions -

WHAT, WHY, WHERE, HOW,
WHO WHEN- the power of
probing

161
 What is an In-depth Interview

162

It is a qualitative research technique that allows person to person

discussion which can lead to increased insight into peoples
thoughts, feelings and behaviour on important issues.

It can be used as one of the effective ways for understanding

reasons for problem behaviours and gather ideas to guide
measures to correct a problem

Characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions

 In-depth Interview
163

Involves use of key informants to obtain in-depth of information

mostly using open–ended questions.
Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a
participant’s experiences.
In-depth interview is conducted with an intention of uncovering
in-depth details of interviewee's experience and perspective on a
subject.

Presence of peer pressure - behaviours happening to satisfy social

desirability
 When to use an In-depth Interview

164

Subject matter is complex

Detailed information sought

Highly sensitive subject matter

Interest on individual experiences

Respondents dissimilar to be meaningfully grouped

 Probing
165

PROBING is a good questioning skill

Examples

Does the child have fever? (Closed question)

Probes -How high is the fever?
– Since when has he had the fever?

Have you given the child medicine?

Probes – What kinds of medicines have you given?

– How much? For how long?

 Examples of effective probes

166

Direct questions:
“What do you mean when you say . . .?”
“Why do you think . . .?”
“How did this happen?”
“How did you feel about . . .?”
“What happened then?”
“Can you tell me more?”
“Can you please elaborate?”
“I’m not sure I understand X. . . . Would you explain that to me?”
“How did you handle X?”
“How did X affect you?”
“Can you give me an example of X?”
 Examples of effective probes

167

Indirect probes:
Neutral verbal expressions such as “uh huh,” “interesting,” and “I
see”
Verbal expressions of empathy, such as,“I can see why you say
that was difficult for you”
Mirroring technique, or repeating what the participant said, such
as, “So you were 19 when you had your first child . . .”
Culturally appropriate body language or gestures, such as nodding
in acknowledgment
 Preparing for the interview

168

Identification of the respondents

Ensure Trained interviewer

Selection of a comfortable location

Other logistics- transport, audio or video etc

Consider access to local population

 Selection of Informants

169

Limit to a small sample size

Select people who are well informed about the issue

Purposive sampling….

Respondents fairly representative of the various groups in the

study population

Informant preferably unknown to interviewers

 Tools for data collection

170

Interview guide

Structured open-ended schedule

The guide makes the interviewing more systematic and

comprehensive
 Preparing the Interview Guide

171

List the important topics to be explored in the study Eg. Malnutrition

among children- Feeding adequacy, Care of the child, Health seeking

Write sub themes for each topic Eg. Under feeding adequacy, elicit
information Breast feeding , complimentary feeding, food
preferences etc.

Make a draft of possible questions based on conceptual frame work

Check that they can help you obtain all the information you need

Questions not to elicit simple Yes or No answers

 Exercise

 Design one of the tools (KI of FGD) that will be most

useful for your primary data collection exercise.
This is an extract from a topic guide on sight
disability and access to care:
173

1) When did the problems with your eyes start?

PROMPTS: What happened next? Did you seek any advice? From whom?
2) What do you think might have caused this?
3) Have you seen a doctor/nurse about your eyesight problems?
PROMPTS: When? Where? What did they advise?
4) IF NO: Have you ever thought about visiting or been advised to visit the clinic?
Explore why not: awareness of clinic services/awareness of cost/availability of
transport and escort.

5) Has your eyesight got worse/better over the last few years? How has this affected your

everyday life?

PROMPTS: ask about activities of daily living (work; in the house; social activities
 Interviewer qualities

174

Experienced/Skilled

Knowledge about the topic

self confidence, ability to establish rapport, good listener,

politeness, articulate enough to prompt respondents to talk

Training is a pre-requisite if team work

 Conducting the interviews

175

Self introduction

Explain the general purpose of the interview

Impress upon the respondent that his opinions are important

Seek privacy

Establish rapport and assure confidentiality

Consent for the interview recording

 Questioning Techniques

176

 Ask clear and open-ended questions

 Ask behaviour /experience before opinion questions
 Sequence-follow a funnelling method-general to specific
 Probe and follow-up questions

 Eg . Could you tell me more about it?

 Managing the field data

177

Field editing

De-briefing

Transcribing

Translation if needed
 Stages of Interview Investigation
178

Thematizing-the why and what of the investigation.

Designing -plan the design of the study.

Interviewing -conduct the interview based on a guide.

Transcribing -prepare the interview material for analysis.
Analyzing -decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods
of analysis that are appropriate.
Verifying -ascertain the validity of the interview findings.
Reporting -communicate findings of the study based on scientific
criteria.
179
180
181
182

Interview Procedures
 Interview Steps Preparing for the Interview

183

Getting familiar with the instruments:

1. Study the interview guide.
2. Study the informed consent document.
3. Practice with a partner.
Day of the interview:
4. Using a checklist, verify that you have all the equipment.
5. Label all data documentation materials.
6. Arrive early at the interview site to set up equipment.
7. Test your recording equipment
 Interview Steps Preparing for the Interview

184

Conducting the Interview

1. Greet the participant in a friendly manner to begin establishing positive rapport.
2. Briefly describe the steps of the interview process (informed consent, question
and answer, their questions)
3. Obtain informed consent.
4. Turn on the tape recorder and verify that it is working.
5. Verify informed consent orally with the tape recorder on.
6. Conduct the interview according to the interview guide.
7. End the question-asking phase of the interview.
8. Give the participant the opportunity to ask questions.
9. Reconfirm the participant’s consent while the tape recorder is still on.
10. Turn off the tape recorder and thank the participant.
11. Clarify any factual errors expressed by participants during the interview.
12. Reimburse the participant in accordance with study procedures
 Interview Steps Preparing for the Interview

185

After the Interview

1. Check the tape to see if the interview was recorded. If it was not,
expand your notes immediately.

2. Punch out the re-record tab.

3. Make sure all materials are labeled with the archival number.

4. Debrief with other field staff.

5. Assemble all materials into one envelope.

6. Expand your notes within 24 hours if possible

 Strengths of an In-depth Interview
186

Provides much more detailed information as compared to other

forms of data collection methods like surveys, questionnaire etc.

In-depth interview enables researcher to study behaviour of the

participant.

It enables the researcher to get an in-depth understanding of a

concept or theme.

It becomes suitable for the participants who refrain from expressing

their opinion publicly.
 Limitations of an In-depth Interview
187

There are concerns regarding the external validity or

generalizability of the research.

It’s a time consuming method. They extract ample time of the

researcher for interview, transcribing, analysing and reporting the
data.

Ethical issues .They found that informed consent, privacy

188

 IN-depth interview.docx
189
 What is Observation

190

Is a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper

setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular
study

It is a technique that involves directly observing behaviour with the

purpose of describing it .
 Type of Observational Method
191
 Types of Observation

192

 Participant Observation:
Observer is part of the phenomenon or group which is observed
Level of participation depends upon the nature of study desired
outcome
Requires lengthy period of engagement in the field
The observed may not be aware of the researcher purpose
Discover the relationship between knowledge, attitude and practice
Observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the
observed behaviour and heard statements
Can be effectively combined with other methods
193
 Participant Observation Steps Preparing for Participant Observation

194

1. Determine the purpose of the participant observation activity as related to the overall research
objectives.
2. Determine the population(s) to be observed.
3. Consider the accessibility of the population(s) and the venues in which you would like to
observe them.
4. Investigate possible sites for participant observation.
5. Select the site(s), time(s) of day, and date(s), and anticipate how long you will collect
participant observation data on each occasion.
6. Decide how field staff will divide up or pair off to cover all sites most effectively.
7. Consider how you will present yourself, both in terms of appearance and how you will
explain your purpose to others if necessary.
8. Plan how and if you will take notes during the participant observation activity. 9 Remember
to take your field notebook and a pen.
After Participant Observation
9. Schedule time soon after participant observation to expand your notes.
10. Type your notes into computer files using the standard format set for the study
 Non-participant Observation
195
Systematically observing and documenting something in its natural
setting
Silent observers
Researcher watches records information about
people or event without intruding into the scene
Look for many things and describe the situations at many different
levels
Ethical issues need to be addressed
No rule as to how many- spread observations over time
 Un- structured Observations

196

Unstructured observation involves broadly focussed encounters

without a pre-determined guide

Data primarily used for descriptive accounts

More of exploratory in nature

 Structured Observation

197

Observes events that have been planned in advance

Validate data obtained from other methods

Standardization of observational technique

Typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how and

when to observe (Persons/locations, duration of observations,
time to conduct, frequency)

Can be quantified , but with little contextual description

 What is to be observed

198

Selection criteria - Depends on the purpose of the study

Sampling -purposive Sampling

Sources of information consider what is to be observed, who is

the foci of attention, where will the observation take place and
what is the most appropriate recording system
 Observation Guide

199

Issues to be observed prepared in advance based on the research

objectives

Inputs from observers / observers familiar with the issues in the study

Goal oriented and suitable to local condition

The items should appear in logical grouping and in the order in which
to observe them
 Selection of Site

200

Prior site selection and permission from authorities

No of observation sites availability, accessibility and study

specific

Date and time-

No of observations per site - depend upon the purpose of

study
 Conduct the observation

201

Inform and explain your presence

Gain confidence and cooperation of subjects

Remain detached yet involved with the group

Take note of the observation situations and also

of non-verbal communication

Avoid making extensive notes during observation

 Documentation in Observation technique

202

Use all senses to describe -the setting-physical

and social environment, non-verbal communication

Field notes- include observation notes, feelings and reflections

Direct quotations

Technological tools-Tape recorder, camera, Laptop etc.

 Some problems and solutions

203

Observer bias

Questionable reliability

Observer may influence behaviour

Actins can only be observed-not thinking

Several researchers make observations

Systematically repeat observations

Repeat observations. Spent time to reduce self-consciousness

Mix with other methods like interview

 Dimensions of Observation

204

1. Space (physical places)

2. Actors (people involved)

3. Activities (the set of related acts people do)

4. Object (the physical things that are present)

5. Time (the sequencing that takes place over time)

6. Goal (the things people are trying to accomplish)

7. Feeling (the emotions felt and expressed)(Spradlet 1979)

205
 Observations…
206
 Summary of benefits and limitations of main qualitative
data collection methods
207
208

 OBSERVATION.docx
209

5: Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

 Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research…

210

Discuss trustworthiness and strategies to enhance

trustworthiness of qualitative findings

Discuss qualitative techniques to increase Trustworthiness

Discus the four quality criteria's of Trustworthiness

 Trustworthiness

211
 Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative
research projects
212
 Qualitative Techniques to Increase
Trustworthiness

213
Qualitative techniques to increase Trustworthiness
214

1. Prolonged engagement:
Spending long periods in the field to build trust with the study
participants.
Acquire cultural competence and become familiar with the
overall context.
2. Member check:
Taking back the results (short summary) to the studied group
through seminars or FGDs.
Allows clarification of information.
to ensure that meaning has been preserved
 Qualitative techniques to increase Trustworthiness
215

3. Peer-debriefing

Presentation of preliminary findings to colleagues.

Helps the researchers evaluate their role in the research process.
Allows the researcher to receive input and comments.
4. Audit Trail:
Detailed documentation of all decisions made
during data collection/analysis to ensure a transparent process
Qualitative techniques to increase Trustworthiness
216

5. Peer Review:
This can include an independent review of the themes by research team
members or a review of themes by peer(s) not involved in the research.
6. Negative Case Analysis:
 Deliberately look for contrasting experiences/examples to disprove
emerging theories.
7. Data saturation:
 Gather data until all themes are exhausted.
 Qualitative techniques to increase Trustworthiness
217

8.Triangulation: is a method used to increase the credibility and

validity of research findings
Common types of triangulation(4).
¨ Data triangulation: Different data sources used (multiple
respondents).
¨ Methodological triangulation:promotes the use of several
data collection methods such as interviews and observations.
¨ Investigators triangulation: the use of several researchers in a
study(different disciplines)
¨ Theory triangulation: encourages several theoretical schemes to
enable interpretation of a phenomenon
Strategies for Quality Rigorous Qualitative Research
(Merriam 2002).

Purposeful / Purposive Sampling Strategies (Patton, 1990)

Constant Comparative Process (Corbin & Strauss, 2014)

Researcher’s Reflexivity and Bracketing (Beech, 1999)

Types of Triangulation (Denzin, 1970)

Member Checks (Creswell & Miller, 2000)

Audit Trail (Lincoln and Guba, 1982) or Research Journal - record

of the detailed account of the methods, procedures and decision
points in carrying out the study
 Example
219

Johnson et al,s qualitative study aimed to identify

system influences on decision making in a pre-hospital
setting with paramedics. Several data sets were included
and comprised exploratory interviews with ambulance
service staff (n=16); document review observations of
paramedic shifts (n=34); paramedic accounts (n=10) via
audio-recorded ‘digital diaries’; staff focus groups (n=3)
and service user focus groups (n=3) to explore a range of
experiences and perceptions.
220

6: Qualitative Data Management and Analysis

 Qualitative Data Analysis
221

 The analysis of qualitative data is often seen as the most difficult

part of the exercise.
 Yet it is very enjoyable to see patterns emerge and be able to draw
out of all the discussions some meaningful conclusions
 Qualitative data analysis

222

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:
Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews
or typing up field notes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated
ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set
of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching
themes.
 There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data.
Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different
concepts.
 Qualitative Data Analysis…
223
 Qualitative data analysis
224
 Qualitative Data Analysis
225

Thematic analysis of data

This is the most common method for descriptive qualitative

researches/projects.

Thematic analysis as an independent qualitative descriptive approach

is mainly described as “a method for identifying, analysing and
reporting patterns (themes) within data” (Braun & Clarke, 2006: 79).
 Thematic analysis
226

Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data.

It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as an interview or

transcripts.

The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes

– topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.

It is a six-step process: familiarization, coding, generating themes,

reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and writing up.
 When to use thematic analysis

227

Thematic analysis is a good approach to research about people’s

views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of
qualitative data – for example, interview transcripts, social media
profiles, or survey responses.
Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis
to answer:
How do patients perceive doctors in a hospital setting?
What are young women’s experiences on dating sites?
What are non-experts’ ideas and opinions about climate change?
How is gender constructed in high school history teaching?
 “Winnowing Down”: Qualitative Data - Reduction
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Source: Presentation Slide #34 in Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2004). Principles of
qualitative research: Designing a qualitative study. Office of Qualitative & Mixed Methods
Research, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
 A six-step thematic analysis process
229

Step 1: Familiarization(Familiarizing yourself with the data)

The first step is to get to know our data.
looking through the data to get familiar with it
This might involve transcribing audio, reading through the text and taking
initial notes,
Step 2: Coding(Generate initial codes )
Next up, we need to code the data. Coding means highlighting sections of our
text – usually phrases or sentences – and coming up with shorthand labels or
“codes” to describe their content.
Let’s take a short example text. Say we’re researching perceptions of climate
change among conservative voters aged 50 and up, and we have collected data
through a series of interviews. An extract from one interview looks like this:
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
230
Coding

Source: Examples of old fashioned

coding method
Excel Coding Examples
Can filter and sort in Excel, can search for text and words – m
All current quo tations (39). Quotation-Filte r: All
______________________________________________________________________

HU: New Hermeneu tic Un it

File: No file
Edited by: Super
Date/Time: 06/20/2012 05:02:53 PM
______________________________________________________________________
233
P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:1 [Sugar dads are a person mostly. .] (58:58) (Super)
Codes: [sugar dads]
No memos

Sugar dads are a person mostly older university teacher ag ed 42 and older who sexually
involves themselves with female university students

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:2 [Mainly they use grade and m ate..] (60:60 ) (Super)
Codes: [Means of explitotation ]
No memos

Mainly they use grad e and materials like laptop, grade, and other in exploitation.

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:3 [Most of them does not have wif..] (63:63) (Super)
Codes: [desire of su gar dads]
No memos

Most of them does not have wife and some of them have wife but aim at completing
their desire of having sex with young girls. So they exploit minors into sexual activities
by giving them grade and laptop and phone so long as they have sex with them.

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:4 [Most of them have two or more .. ] (66:66 ) (Super)
Codes: [Needs of young girl]
No memos

Most of them have two or more sexual partners in the campus, in addition they want to
survive in the campus and also want to fulfill their basic needs, and th ey made a
relationship with sugar dads. They are usually easy going in order to obtain some
income like money, closes, cosmetics, laptop, grade… from me

P 1: TRANSCRIPTIO N (2 ).docx - 1:5 [T hey like to use their money a. .] (68:68) (Super)
Codes: [Means of explitotation ]
No memos
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
234

Step 3: Generating themes

Next, we look over the codes we’ve created, identify patterns

among them, and start coming up with themes.

Themes are generally broader than codes. Most of the time, you’ll
combine several codes into a single theme. In our example, we
might start combining codes into themes like this:
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
235
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
236

Step 4: Reviewing themes

Here, we return to the data set and compare our themes against it.
Are we missing anything? Are these themes really present in the
data? What can we change to make our themes work better?
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
237

Step 5: Defining and naming themes

Now that you have a final list of themes, it’s time to name and
define each of them.
Defining themes involves formulating exactly what we mean by
each theme and figuring out how it helps us understand the data.
Naming themes involves coming up with a succinct and easily
understandable name for each theme.
For example, we might look at “distrust of experts” and determine
exactly who we mean by “experts” in this theme. We might
decide that a better name for the theme is “distrust of authority”
or “conspiracy thinking”.
 A six-step thematic analysis process…
238

Step 6: Writing up
• writing up a thematic analysis requires an introduction to establish

our research question, aims and approach.

• We should also include a methodology section, describing how we

collected the data (e.g. through semi-structured interviews or

open-ended survey questions) and explaining how we conducted the
thematic analysis itself.
• The results or findings section usually addresses each theme in turn.

We describe how often the themes come up and what they mean,
including examples from the data as evidence. Finally, our
conclusion explains the main takeaways and shows how the analysis
has answered our research question.
239
 Develop conceptual framework based on the following
codes for struggles of working street children
240

Lack Uniform
Lack school fees
Worry
Mind elsewhere
School levies
Tired in school
Headaches
No school books
241
 Identify the content units, categories/ Concepts/ identified in the social-work interview

242
Content Units Categories Concepts
(specific, concrete and couched (more general, more abstract and in fairly (abstract, scientific and related
in everyday language) scientific language) to theory)
to work without supervision desire for independence
to help people in trouble helper syndrome MOTIVATION
fascination with the exotic openness to novelty
I wanted to broaden my horizons desire for novelty
working with strangers tolerance for uncertainty feeling of special PERSONALITY
I get along with difficult people personal
qualification
I am not really good enough self-doubt
I want to know more about people need for greater knowledge
I need more academic training SELF-EFFICACY
I feel guilty feeling of personal deficiency
I feel disloyal to my clients negative affect about herself

I want to do my job well success orientation

I don’t know if I am really helping them uncertainty
The clients are often very difficult
Why can’t they avoid trouble themselves JOB-RELATED STRESS
I’m sick of them trying to control me negative feelings towards clients

feeling of being manipulated

to understand the point of the work sense of meaninglessness
to overcome my isolation
(the job) wears me down isolation BURNOUT
Do I really need this job? sense of personal destruction
I feel helpless sense of meaninglessness
loss of control
 How do you Report the findings
243

It is also substantiated by the in-depth interview that one of the

interviewee said ““I have 5 school friends, 4 of them have
practiced premarital sexual practice and three of them have been
pregnant and aborted at least once.”
One female interviewee also said that:
“I haven’t ever thought of sex before marriage, but my boyfriend had
requested me so many times and I have feared of losing him and if I
don’t practice it, I might lose him and I made it simple since all my
friends are passing through it.”
 FGDs
244

The provision of HEP services for rural families. One statement by a

female community member in, Harari is an example worth mentioning:
‘’The former HEWs visited all the households in the kebele. But the
current HEWs do not do that. They are not providing this service….
During the last 3 years, there were absolutely no house-to-house visits.
HEWs who were working in our kebele 3 years ago visited every
household in the kebele, they inspected our personal hygiene, they
advised us on several issues relating to healthy behaviors.…But now,
they come to the community only when they are forced by higher officials
to do so.’’

FGD, Female Community Members, Harari

 FGD
245

 One community member explained the role of WDA leaders as

follows:
‘’Yes, they transmit health messages. They mobilize the community for
immunization and call pregnant mothers for pregnant women’s conferences.
WDAs know who is pregnant in their communities; they advise them to get
ANC and use maternal waiting rooms. They tell mothers to get
vaccinations, which is important for the newborn. They teach them to share
responsibilities with their husband, because a job burden could lead to
preterm delivery. Moreover, preterm delivery will lead to further costs, as
preterm babies need special care in hot rooms; the mother will also be
admitted there. Therefore, prevention is best. This is how WDAs assist
HEWs.’’
FGD, Female Community Members, Amhara
 Informed Consent in Qualitative Research
246

 Informed consent is a mechanism for ensuring that people

understand what it means to participate in a particular research
study so they can decide in a conscious, deliberate way whether
they want to participate.
 Informed consent is one of the most important tools for ensuring
respect for persons during research
 How do we achieve informed consent for
qualitative research?
247

 Inform people about the research in a way they can understand.

 The person should be told:

• the purpose of the research

• what is expected of a research participant
• expected risks and benefits, including psychological and
social
• the fact that participation is voluntary and that one can
withdraw at any time with no negative repercussions
• how confidentiality will be protected
• the name and contact information of the local lead investigator
to be contacted for questions or problems related to the research
248

Basic Principles Qualitative Research Code of

Ethics
 Basic Principles of the American Sociological Association
Code of Ethics
249

Research should not harm respondents

Participation must be voluntary and respondents must give informed

consent

Researchers must disclose their identity and affiliations

Anonymity and confidentiality must be maintained for respondents

The benefits of a research project should outweigh any foreseeable

 Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research

250

One starting point in considering ethical concerns:

Autonomy; respect the rights of the individual
Beneficence; doing good
Non-maleficience; not doing harm
Justice; particularly equity
Consider carefully the context in which you will be working, the
aim of your research and how sensitive the topic might be.
Consent and confidentiality.
 Ethical Issues in Research in general
251
 Ethical Issues in Research in general…
252
 Ethical Issues in Research in general…
253
254

Structure of Qualitative Research Proposal

 Structure of research/ proposal
255

1. Proposed Title of the Research Project

2. Summary/abstract (1 page) -(Approximately 1 page)
3.Introduction
 Give a brief introduction in order to orientate your reader to your research
topic, in other words you have to put your research focus in context
(approximately 15 lines).
4. Rationale
 The rationale should be clear on why it is necessary to do this

research study
 Structure of research/ proposal
256

5.PROBLEM STATEMENT
 The problem statement should be formulated in such a way that
it captures or describes the essence or core of the research
problem (what the problem is and why it is a problem). You
should be clear about the essence of your enquiry.
6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED STUDY
 The importance or benefits of this study should explain what
contribution it would make to the existing body of knowledge
about this topic.
 Structure of research/ proposal
257

6.RESEARCH QUESTION(S)
 The primary question (main question) should be formulated in
such a way that it is clear to an outside reader. Appropriate
secondary questions could also be formulated if there is more
than one question that should be answered.
7.AIM AND OBJECTIVES
Formulation of aim
 The aim of the study should be clearly stated. There should be a
link between the aim and the title of the research study.
Formulation of objectives
 State exactly what outcomes have to be achieved in order to
achieve the objectives
 Structure of research/ proposal
258

8.CONCEPT CLARIFICATION
 Provide definitions for the most important key concepts used in your study
9.METHODOLOGY
Typical sections included in this part of the proposal are
 Qualitative research design

 The selection of participants or unit of analysis and the sampling thereof

(who / what, how and why)

 Method(s) of data collection (how and why)

 Method(s) of data organisation (how and why)

 Data analysis strategy (how and why)

 Date interpretation (how and why)

10. CONTEXT_clarify the setting or context of the study.

 Structure of research/ proposal
259

11. TRUSTWORTHINESS
 Describe the strategies you would include in your study to
ensure trustworthiness.
12. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
 Include the informed consent
13.TIME SCHEDULE
 Include your predicted time schedule for your study.
14.BUDGET / RESOURCES
 Include a broad outline of your budget, as well as by whom it
will be funded.
15.REFERENCES
 Exercise

260

Topic: RISKY SEXUAL BEHAVIORS AND ASSOCIATED

FACTORS AMONG PEOPLE LIVING WITH HUMAN IMMUNO
DEFICIENCY VIRUS ATTENDING HIV CARE IN PUBLIC
HEALTH FACILITIES OF DESSIE CITY ADMINISTRATION,
NORTHEAST ETHIOPIA
-Write the Whole Research Proposal Components
-Write the following for Mixed Method Research
-Objective(General & Specific)
-Methods(Study design, population, eligibility, sample size
determination, sampling technique ,variables, operational definition,
analysis etc)
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