Biomolecules

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Molecular life – Monomeric unit and Polymeric structures

Biomolecules are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms.

Biomolecules include macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and nucleic acids
Consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen with nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur,
and phosphorus

There are four major classes of biomolecules: i. Carbohydrates ii. Lipids

iii. Proteins iv. Nucleic acids

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3
 PROTEINS
 Proteins are large bio molecules , or macromolecules, consisting of
one or more long chains of amino acid residues.

 Proteins are known as building block of life.

 Proteins are the most abundant intracellular macro-molecules.

They provide structure, protection to the body of multi cellular
organism in the form of skin,
× hair, callus, cartilage, ligaments, muscles, tendons. Proteins
regulates and catalyze the body chemistry in the form of
hormones, enzymes, immunoglobulin’s etc. 4
 General characteristics of
proteins
 Proteins are organic substance; they are made up of nitrogen
and also , oxygen and hydrogen.

 Proteins are most important molecules; they are the

fundamental constituents of the cytoplasm of the cell.

 Proteins give heat and energy to the body and also aid in
building and repair.

 Antibodies , blood hemoglobin are also made of proteins.

 Proteins have a molecular weight of 5 to 300 kilo- Daltons.

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 Function of proteins
Class of protein Function in the body Example
Structural Provide structural Keratin is in hair , skin , wool ,
Components. and nails.

Contractile Movement of muscles Myosin and acting contra-

ct muscle fibres.

Transport Carry essential substance Hemoglobin transport oxygen.

Throught out the body

Storage Store nutrients Ferritin stores iron in spleen and

liver.

Hormone Regulate metabolism and nervous Insulin regulates blood glucose

system level.

Enzyme Catalyze biochemical Trypsin catalyzes the hydrolysis

reactions in the cell of proteins.
 Lipids
• Lipids are composed of long hydrocarbon chains. Lipid molecules hold a large amount
of energy and are energy storage molecules. Lipids are generally esters of fatty acids and
are building blocks of biological membranes.
• Most of the lipids have a polar head and non-polar tail. Fatty acids can be unsaturated
and saturated fatty acids.
• Lipids present in biological membranes are of three classes based on the type of
hydrophilic head present:
1. Glycolipids are lipids whose head contains oligosaccharides with 1-15 saccharide
residues.
2. Phospholipids contain a positively charged head which are linked to the negatively
charged phosphate
groups.
• Sterols, whose head contain a steroid ring. Example steroid.
• Example of lipids: oils, fats, phospholipids, glycolipids, etc.
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In addition to the very common fatty acids with straight saturated or
unsaturated acyl chains, many fatty acids are chemically modified by
substituents on the hydrocarbon chain. For example, the preening gland of
ducks secretes a fatty acid 10 carbons long with methyl (CH3) groups
substituted for one of the hydrogens on carbons 2, 4, 6, and 8

The molecules in a layer are arranged so

that the hydrophobic (water-fearing)
hydrocarbon chains form the interior of
the layer and the hydrophilic (water-
loving) carboxylic acid groups form the
two faces. For a specific fatty acid the
details of the molecular packing may
vary, giving rise to different crystal
forms known as polymorphs

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Biological sources
Fatty acids are found in biological systems either as free molecules or as
components of more-complex lipids. They are derived from dietary
sources or produced by metabolism

Storage
After transport through the circulation, triglycerides are hydrolyzed yet
again to fatty acids in the adipose tissue. Once again they are
resynthesized into triglycerides and stored as droplets. Fat or adipose
tissue essentially consists of cells, whereby the interior of each cell is
largely occupied by a fat droplet.
Biosynthesis
In mammals, fatty acids are synthesized in adipose and liver cells from
glucose via a fairly complex pathway. In essence, the six carbons of a
glucose molecule are oxidized to a pair of two-carbon carboxylic acid
fragments called acetate. The starting point for biosynthesis is an acetate
group chemically linked to a molecule of CoA (coenzyme A) 9
 Structure
Triglycerides (chemical name
triacylglycerol), the principal means of
storing fatty acids in biological systems,
are a class of compounds that consist of
glycerol (a three-carbon trihydroxy
alcohol) with a fatty acid linked to each
of the three OH groups by an ester bond.
An example of a typical triglyceride is
tristearin. Because this molecule
contains only one type of fatty acid, it is
referred to as a simple triglyceride.

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 Amino Acids
Amino acids are molecules that combine to form proteins. Amino acids and
proteins are the building blocks of life. When proteins are digested or broken down,
amino acids are left. The human body uses amino acids to make proteins to help the
body: Break down food.

Structure of an Amino Acid

Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins.
Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure ,
which consists of a central carbon atom, also known as the
alpha (α) carbon, bonded to an amino group (NH2), a
carboxyl group (COOH), and to a hydrogen atom

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 Types of Amino Acids
The name “amino acid” is derived from the amino group and carboxyl-acid-group
in their basic structure. There are 21 amino acids present in proteins, each with a
specific R group or side chain. Ten of these are considered essential amino acids
in humans because the human body cannot produce them and they must be
obtained from the diet. All organisms have different essential amino acids based
on their physiology.

Characteristics of Amino Acids

The chemical composition of the side chain determines the characteristics of the
amino acid. Amino acids such as valine, methionine, and alanine are nonpolar
(hydrophobic), while amino acids such as serine, threonine, and cysteine are
polar (hydrophilic). The side chains of lysine and arginine are positively charged
so these amino acids are also known as basic (high pH) amino acids. Proline is
an exception to the standard structure of an animo acid because its R group is
linked to the amino group, forming a ring-like
12 structure.
 Sugar, Starch And Cellulose

"Sugar" is a generic term for any mono or disaccharide. Glucose and Fructose
are examples of monosaccharides. When they are joined together, they form
Sucrose, a disaccharide.

Starch
A white, granular, organic chemical that
is produced by all green plants. Starch
is a soft, white, tasteless powder that is
insoluble in cold water, alcohol, or
other solvents. The basic
chemical formula of the starch molecule
is (C6H10O5)n.
Structure of Starch
 Cellulose
• Cellulose, a polymer of D-glucose, is the most abundant organic material.
• Cellulose is synthesized by plants as a structural material to support the
weight of the plant.
• Long cellulose molecules, called microfibrils, are held in bundles by
hydrogen bonding between the many groups of the glucose rings.
• About 50% of dry wood and about 90% of cotton fiber is cellulose.

Types of cellulose
• α - Cellulose - is very much less degraded and does not dissolve in
aqueous NaOH.
• β- Cellulose:- is soluble in aqueous NaOH but insoluble in dill. Acid.
• γ- Cellulose:- is insoluble in both.

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 Applications
• Filters, membranes
Cellulose nitrate membranes still play a role as filter and separation media and
recently found an interesting new field of application as nuclear track
detectors in high-energy physics and geology, with the tracks obtained by
radiation degradation of the nitrate groupsbeing developed and made visible
microscopically by treatment withaqueous NaOH (Watjen et al., 1993).
• Component in lacquers
The excellent mechanical and adhesive properties of cellulose nitrate films and
coatings still promote the widespread application of cellulose nitrate lacquers
containing 10-13% polymer. They can be processed by spraying with
compressed air, casting, rowling, doctor knives coating or dipping. They are
used e.g. as wood lacquers for furniture, as metal and paper lacquers and also
as sealing lacquers for cellophane plastic and metal foils, as well as for the
preparation of printing inks, e.g. for flexo printing.
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 Nucleotides And DNA/ RNA
Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a
phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers –
deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid, both of which are essential
biomolecules within all life-forms on Earth

One of the types of macromolecules that one can find in

the acid insoluble fraction of any living tissue is the
nucleic acid. These are polynucleotides.
• For nucleic acids, the building block is a nucleotide.
A nucleotide has three chemically distinct
components :-
1. a heterocyclic compound (nitrogenous base)
2. a monosaccharide (sugar)
3. phosphate group 17
• Living organisms have a number of carbon compounds in which heterocyclic
rings can be found. Some of these are nitrogenous bases – adenine, guanine,
cytosine, uracil & thymine (thymine is present in dna in place of uracil & vice-
versa in rna)

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• Both DNA and RNA are made from
nucleotides, each containing a five-carbon
sugar backbone, a phosphate group, and a
nitrogen base.
• DNA provides the code for the cell’s
activities, while RNA converts that code
into proteins to carry out cellular
functions.
• The sequence of nitrogen bases (A, T, C,
G) in DNA is what forms an organism’s
traits.
• The nitrogen bases A and T (or U in RNA)
always go together and C and G always go
together, forming the 5′-3′ phosphodiester
linkage found in the nucleic acid 19
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Timeline
Blue is the colour Red is the colour Black is the color Yellow is the color White is the color Blue is the colour
of the clear sky of danger and of ebony and of of gold, butter and of milk and fresh of the clear sky
and the deep sea courage outer space ripe lemons snow and the deep sea

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Yellow is the color White is the color Blue is the colour Red is the colour Black is the color Yellow is the
of gold, butter and of milk and fresh of the clear sky of danger and of ebony and of color of gold,
ripe lemons snow and the deep sea courage outer space butter and ripe
lemons

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 Roadmap
Blue is the colour of the Red is the colour of danger Black is the color of ebony
clear sky and the deep sea and courage and of outer space

1 3 5

2 4 6

Yellow is the color of gold, White is the color of milk Blue is the colour of the
butter and ripe lemons and fresh snow clear sky and the deep sea

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Gantt chart
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JOB TITLE JOB TITLE JOB TITLE JOB TITLE
Blue is the colour of the Blue is the colour of the Blue is the colour of the Blue is the colour of the
clear sky and the deep sea clear sky and the deep sea clear sky and the deep sea clear sky and the deep sea

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 Competitor Matrix
HIGH VALUE 2

Competitor
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HIGH VALUE 1
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Competitor

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LOW VALUE 2
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Weekly Planner
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