Chapter 3

Wireless Network Principles

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 1

 Wireless Basics
• Cellular network is an underlying technology for
 mobile phones

 personal communication systems

 wireless networking etc.

• This technology is developed for mobile radio telephone to replace high

power transmitter/receiver systems.

• Cellular networks use lower power, shorter range and more transmitters
for data transmission.
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 2
 Shapes of Cells

• The coverage areas of cellular networks are divided into cells

• Each cell having its own antenna for transmitting the signals.

• Each cell has its own frequencies.

• Data communication in cellular networks is served by its base station

transmitter, receiver and its control unit.

• The shape of cells can be either square or hexagon as follows:

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 3

 Square
• A square cell has four neighbours at distance d and four at distance Root 2 d
• Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
• Simplifies choosing and switching to new antenna
Hexagon
• A hexagon cell shape is highly recommended for its easy coverage and
calculations. It offers the following advantages −
• Provides equidistant antennas
• Distance from centre to vertex equals length of side

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 4

 Wireless Frequency Allocation and Regulation

• Frequency allocation also known as Spectrum allocation

• It is allocation and regulation of the electromagnetic spectrum into radio

frequency bands which is normally done by governments in most countries.

• It is a process of regulating the use of the electromagnetic spectrum and dividing it

among various and sometimes competing organizations and interests.

• This basically means that spectrum allocation is done to prevent major interference and
chaos in the air waves, which would serve no one at all.

• This regulation is controlled by various governmental and international organizations.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 5

• Some standardization organizations working on spectrum allocation and
regulation:

European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations

(CEPT)

International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

Inter-American Telecommunication Commission (CITEL)

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 6

Types of spectrum allocation:

• No one may transmit :- Spectrum band is reserved for a specific use such as
radio astronomy so that there is no interference with radio telescopes

• Anyone may transmit :- As long as transmission power limits are respected

• Only licensed users/organizations of the specific band may transmit:-

Examples are cellular and television spectrums as well as amateur radio
frequency allocations

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 7

 Frequency Reuse

• Frequency reusing is the concept of using the same radio frequencies within a given
area, which are separated by considerable distance, with minimal interference, to
establish communication.

• Frequency reuse offers the following benefits −

Allows communications within cell on a given frequency

Limits escaping power to adjacent cells

Allows re-use of frequencies in nearby cells

Uses same frequency for multiple conversations

10 to 50 frequencies per cell

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 8
• For example, when N cells are using the same number of
frequencies and K be the total number of frequencies used in
systems.

• Then each cell frequency is calculated by using the formulae K/N.

• In Advanced Mobile Phone Services (AMPS) when K = 395 and N

= 7, then frequencies per cell on an average will be 395/7 = 56.

• Here, cell frequency is 56.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 9

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 10
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 11
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 12
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 13
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 14
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 15
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 16
 Antenna
• A person, who needs to convey a thought, an idea or a doubt, can do so
by voice communication.

• Here, communication takes place through sound waves.

• However, if two people want to communicate who are at longer distances,

then we have to convert these sound waves into electromagnetic waves.

• The device, which converts the required information signal into

electromagnetic waves, is known as an Antenna.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 17

• An Antenna is a transducer, which converts electrical power into
electromagnetic waves and vice versa.

• An Antenna can be used either as a transmitting antenna or a receiving antenna.

• A transmitting antenna is one, which converts electrical signals into

electromagnetic waves and radiates them.

• A receiving antenna is one, which converts electromagnetic waves from the

received beam into electrical signals.

• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for both transmission
and reception.
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 18
 Transmission Limitations
• The limitations that affect electromagnetic wave transmissions are:-

Attenuation

• The strength of signal falls with distance over transmission medium.

• The extent of attenuation is a function of distance, transmission medium, as well as the frequency of the

underlying transmission.

Distortion

• Since signals at different frequencies attenuate to different extents, a signal comprising of components over

a range of frequencies gets distorted, i.e., the shape of the received signal changes.

• A standard method of resolving this problem (and recovering the original shape) is to amplify higher

frequencies and thus equalize attenuation over a band of frequencies.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 19
 Dispersion

• Dispersion is the phenomenon of spreading of a burst of electromagnetic energy during

propagation.

• Bursts of data sent in rapid succession tend to merge due to dispersion.

Noise

• The most pervasive form of noise is thermal noise, which is often modeled using an
additive Gaussian model.

• Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons and is uniformly distributed across
the frequency spectrum. Other forms of noise include:
Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 20
• Inter modulation noise (caused by signals produced at frequencies that are
sums or differences of carrier frequencies)
• Crosstalk (interference between two signals)
• Impulse noise (irregular pulses of high energy caused by external
electromagnetic disturbances).
• The below figure clearly illustrates how the noise signal overlaps the original
signal and tries to change its characteristics.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 21

 Fading

• Fading refers to the variation of the signal strength with respect to

time/distance and is widely prevalent in wireless transmissions.

• The most common causes of fading in the wireless environment are multipath
propagation and mobility of objects as well as the communicating devices.
Multipath propagation
• In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are
reflection, scattering, and diffraction.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 22

• Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose size
is much larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.

• Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose size
is larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.

• Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of size smaller than
the wavelength of the signal.

Compiled By: Lencho Jembere(Msc) 23

 Multiplexing
• It involves the sharing of expensive network resources by
several connections or information flows.
• Allows multiple signals to travel simultaneously over one
medium
• To accommodate multiple signals, single medium is logically
separated into sub channels
• For each type of multiplexing:
– Multiplexer (mux) is required at sending end of channel
– Demultiplexer (demux) separates the combined signals and
regenerates them in original form

24
Multiplexing

25
 Frequency Division Multiplex Access (FDMA)
• In FDMA, the frequency bandwidth of the line is divided
into a number of partitions,
– each of which is used as a separate logical channel.
• Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency
• Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not overlap
e.g. broadcast radio, TV
• Channel is allocated even if no data
• Mainly used for Analog voice transmission 26
 Frequency Division Multiplex Access (FDMA)

In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel

is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands. 27
 Time division Multiplex Access (TDMA)
• Divides channel into multiple intervals of time.
• Multiple digital signals (or analog signals carrying
digital data) interleaved in time
• Time slots pre assigned to sources and it is fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Mainly used for digital voice and data transmission

28
 Time Division Multiplexing

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between

different stations.
29
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Used in several wireless broadcast channels (cellular,
satellite, etc) standards
• unique “code” assigned to each user;
• all users share same frequency, but each user has own
sequence (i.e., code) to encode data
• allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference.
• Utilizes all available frequency spectrum.
• No rigid delivery schedule
• Delivery truck can take advantage of when user is not
talking to support more callers.
30
Code Division Multiplex Access (CDMA)

31
 CDMA (more)
 All users share same frequency, but each user has own “chipping”

sequence (i.e., code) to encode data

 encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping sequence)

 decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and chipping sequence

 allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit simultaneously with

minimal interference

32
CDMA encoding

33
 Chip sequences

Data representation in CDMA

34
Sharing channel in CDMA

35
Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

36
 CDMA Encode/Decode
channel output Zi,m
Zi,m= di.cm
data d0 = 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d1 = -1
bits -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
sender
-1 -1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slot 1 slot 0
code channel
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 channel
output output
slot 1 slot 0

M
Di = SZ
m=1
i,m
.
cm
M
received 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d0 = 1
input -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 d1 = -1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slot 1 slot 0
code channel
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 channel
receiver slot 1 slot 0
output output

37