REVIEW-BASIC CHEMISTRY ATOM, MOLEKUL DAN REAKSI KIMIA

Jurusan Teknik Lingkungan FTSP-ITS

+
+

+ + + + + + + + -

+ + -

Thomsons Atom

The Rutherford
atom a tiny, dense nucleus that contains all of the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom surrounded by electrons

When salts containing Li, Cu, and Na dissolved in methyl alcohol are set on fire, brilliant colors result.

Cu

LiLi Na

The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom represented the electron as restricted to certain circular orbits around the nucleus.

I. Atomic Structure (Review)

Sub Atomic Particle Charge Mass(amu)

proton (p)
neutron(n) electron(e-)

+1
0 -1

1
1 0

B. An atom is neutral if # e-s = # ps.

If a neutral atom gains extra electron(s) then it becomes a negatively charged species called an anion. If a neutral atom loses electron(s) then it becomes a positively charged species called a cation.

Representing Atoms of an Element

An atom may be represented as its Symbol preceded by its subscripted atomic number, Z, and its superscripted atomic mass number, A.
A Z

Symbol

In the case of the element Carbon

12

C 6

Thus the total capacity of shell is distributed amongst its subshells.

Valence Electrons

Valence electrons are located on highest in energy orbitals and most important for chemical bonding. Negatively charged electrons may act as glue for positively charged nuclei.

Using the periodic table to write electron configurations

More information from the Periodic Table

The term valence electron refers to the # of e-s in the outermost energy level or shell of an atom.

Why do atoms react together to form compounds?

Atoms react with one another to form compounds in an attempt to achieve the econfiguration of their nearest noble gas neighbor (family 8). The reason for this is that the e- configuration of the noble gases represents an extremely stable situation.

Ionic Bonds
These are formed when ions anions/cations of opposite charge come together. Generally ionic compounds are formed between metals (left of step) and nonmetals (right of step).

How many hydrogen atoms bond to one carbon atom? Kekul structure for covalently bonded molecule

Can become isoelectronic with H by gaining 1e-

4H

H H C H H

H H C H

Can become isoelectronic with Ne by gaining 4e-

Lewis Structure for covalent molecule of CH4

The Covalent Bond and Electronegativity

The sharing of an e- pair between two atoms may be equal .

If

this is the case then the resulting covalent bond is a nonpolar covalent bond.

If, on the other hand the sharing is unequal then a polar covalent bond results.

Electronegativity values for selected elements.

The degree to which a covalent bond is polarized is indicated by the electronegativity difference between the two bonded atoms.

If the electronegativity difference is greater than .5 but less than 2.0 then the covalent bond is polar. If the electronegativity difference is less than .5 then the covalent bond is nonpolar.

Like Dissolves Like

Polar molecules dissolve in Polar Solvents Nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents Polar molecules do not dissolve in nonpolar solvent Nonpolar molecules do not dissolve in polar solvents

: An oil layer floating on water. The oil is nonpolar and the water is polar

REDOKS REACTION
Oxidation : loss of electron

Reduction : gain of electron

QUESTION 1
STEP 1 KMnO4+FeSO4+H2SO4 Fe2(SO4 )3+K2SO4+MnSO4 +H2O .(a) or MnO-4 + Fe2+ +H+ Fe3+ + Mn2+ + H2O .(b)

Equation (b) is the ionic form of Eq(a), if one recognizes that the potassium and sulfanate ions do not enter the reaction (they are not oxidized or reduced).

Larutan/solution

Definitions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture A solute is dissolved in a solvent.

solute is the substance being dissolved solvent is the liquid in which the solute is dissolved an aqueous solution has water as solvent

A saturated solution is one where the concentration is at a maximum - no more solute is able to dissolve.

A saturated solution represents an equilibrium: the rate of dissolving is equal to the rate of crystallization. The salt continues to dissolve, but crystallizes at the same rate so that there appears to be nothing happening.

Dissolution of Solid Solute

What are the driving forces which cause solutes to dissolve to form solutions?
1. Covalent solutes dissolve by H-bonding to water or by LDF 2. Ionic solutes dissolve by dissociation into their ions.

Solution and Concentration

4 ways of expressing concentration

moles solute / Liter solution

Molarity(M):
Mass

percent: (mass solute / mass of solution) * 100 (m) - moles solute / Kg solvent

Molality* Mole

Fraction(A) - moles solute / total moles solution

* Note that molality is the only concentration unit in which denominator contains only solvent information rather than solution.

% Concentration

% (w/w) =

mass solute mass solution mass solute volume solution volume solute volume solution

x 100

% (w/v) =

x 100

% (v/v) =

x 100

More practice
1.

What is the % W/W of copper in an alloy when 10 g of Cu is mixed with 250 g of Zn?

10 g / 260 g = 3.8 % W/W

2.

What is approximate % V/V if 30 mL of pure ethanol is added to 250 mL of water? What is the % W/W if 8.0 g copper is added to enough zinc to produce 100 g of an alloy?

30 mL / 280 mL = 11% V/V (in reality may be off)

3.

8.0 g / 100 g = 8% W/W

% Concentration: % Mass Example

3.5 g of CoCl2 is dissolved in 100mL solution. Assuming the density of the solution is 1.0 g/mL, what is concentration of the solution in % mass?
%m = 3.5 g CoCl2 100g H2O
= 3.5% (m/m)

Concentration: Molarity Example

If 0.435 g of KMnO4 is dissolved in enough water to give 250. mL of solution, what is the molarity of KMnO4?
As is almost always the case, the first step is to convert the mass of material to moles.

0.435 g KMnO4 1 mol KMnO4 = 0.00275 mol KMnO4

158.0 g KMnO4

Now that the number of moles of substance is known, this can be combined with the volume of solution which must be in liters to give the molarity. Because 250. mL is equivalent to 0.250 L . Molarity KMnO4 = 0.00275 mol KMnO4 = 0.0110 M
0.250 L solution

Dilution
When a solution is diluted, solvent is added to lower its concentration. The amount of solute remains constant before and after the dilution:

Suppose you have 0.500 M sucrose stock solution. How do you prepare 250 mL of 0.348 M sucrose solution ? Concentratio n 0.500 M Sucrose

250 mL of 0.348 M sucrose

A bottle of 0.500 M standard sucrose stock solution is in the lab. Give precise instructions to your assistant on how to use the stock solution to prepare 250.0 mL of a 0.348 M sucrose solution.

moles BEFORE = moles AFTER

C1V1 = C2V2

Solution Concentration
Expressing concentrations in parts per million (ppm) requires the unit on top to be 1,000,000 times smaller than the unit on the bottom E.g. 1 mg/kg or g/g Multiples of 1000 are expressed in this order _, m_, _, k_ (_ is the base unit) (pg.631) Notice that any units expressed as a volume must be referring to a water solution (1L = 1kg) For parts per billion (ppb), the top unit would have to be 1,000,000,000 times smaller

Example

What is the concentration of TCE (g/m3) ? a. A soil having density of 2 g/cm3 with TCE initial concentration of 4 ppm ?
6 3 3

4g 2 g 10 cm x 3x 8g / m 3 1000000 g cm m

Cont
Most of the ways concentration is represented fall into the categories shown in Table 1.

Cont

In water, units mg/L of are common . because the density of pure water is approximately 1000 g/l. Most aqueous solutions encountered in environmental engineering and science are dilute, meaning that dissolved material does not add significantly to the mass of the water, and the total density remains approximately 1000 g/l.

Cont

One liter of water is analyzed and found to contain 5.0 mg TCE. What is the TCE concentration in mg/l and ppm? (density of water 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3) Mass/volume = 5 mg/L ppm mass/mass ???

Air concentration

For concentrations in the atmosphere, it is common to use units of mass/ volume air. For example, mg/m3 and g/m3 are common. Avogadro's law states, equal volumes at the same temperature and pressure contain equal amounts of moles. The volume of 22.4, at STP, is referred to as the mole volume because it contains exactly one mole at STP. To find the number of moles of a gas at STP, the volume of the gas must be divided by 22.4 liters.

Cont

What is the carbon monoxide concentration (expressed in g/m3 ) of a 10 l gas mixture which contains 1 x 10-6 mole of CO? Mr CO = 28

Cont

A gas mixture contains 0.001 mole of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and 0.999 moles of air. What is the concentration SO2 , expressed in units of ppmv ? Mr SO2 = 64.01 Solution:

Cont

Cont

The concentration of in air is 100 ppbv. What is this concentration in units of ? (Temperature is 280 C and pressure is 1 atm)

Cont

Cont

Cont

What is the concentration of TCE (g/m3) in air volume sampler at 20OC and 1 atm the initial concentration of TCE os 4 ppm? Mr TCE = 131.5

Solutions : 4mL 1mol 131 .5 g L 6 x x x1000 3 0.023 g / m3 10 mL 22 .4 L mol m

Example Larutan

Chemical Reaction

Cont

A chemical change or chemical reaction is a process in which one or more pure substances are converted into one or more different pure substances. Most of the reactions we will study belong to one of three types: 1. Precipitation reactions. In these reactions, you mix solutions of two ionic substances and a solid ionic substance (a precipitate) forms. 2. Acidbase reactions. An acid substance reacts with a substance called a base. Such reactions involve the transfer of a proton between reactants. 3. Oxidationreduction reactions. These involve the transfer of electrons between reactants.

Ionic solution
Although water is itself nonconducting, it has the ability to dissolve various substances, some of which go into solution as freely moving ions. An aqueous solution of ions is electrically conducting

Electrolyte

A strong electrolyte is an electrolyte that exists in solution almost entirely as ions. A weak electrolyte is an electrolyte that dissolves in water to give a relatively small percentage of ions

Cont

Most soluble molecular substances are either non electrolytes or weak electrolytes. An exception is hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g), which dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions and chloride ions STRONG ELECTROLYTE

Solubility

It is clear from the preceding discussion that substances vary widely in their solubility, or ability to dissolve, in water. Soluble substances are either electrolytes or nonelectrolytes. Nonelectrolytes form non-conducting aqueous solutions because they dissolve completely as molecules. Electrolytes form electrically conducting solutions in water because they dissolve to give ions in solution.

Cont

Almost all soluble ionic substances are strong electrolytes. The solubility rules can be used to predict the solubility of ionic compounds in water.

Chemical Equation
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) ---> 2 Al2O3(s) YIELDS PRODUCT REACTAN S S
Chemical equations show the formulas for the substances that take part in the reaction

Chemical Equations
Because of the principle of the conservation of matter,
an equation

must be balanced.

It must have the same number of atoms of the same kind on both sides.

Lavoisier, 1788

STOICHIOMETRY
- the study of the quantitative aspects of chemical reactions.

Example Chemical Equations

PROBLEM: If 454 g of NH4NO3 decomposes, how much N2O and H2O are formed? What is the theoretical yield of products? If in this reaction isolated only 131 g of N2O, what is the percent yield?

Mr NH4NO3 = 80.04 Mr N2O = 44 H2O = 18.02

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 2 Convert mass reactant (454 g) --> moles
1 mol 454 g = 5.68 mol NH4NO3 80.04 g

STEP 3 Convert moles reactant (5.68 mol) --> moles product

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 3 Convert moles reactant -> moles product
Relate moles NH4NO3 to moles product expected. 1 mol NH4NO3 --> 2 mol H2O Express this relation as the

STOICHIOMETRIC FACTOR. 2 mol H2 O produced

1 mol NH4NO 3 used

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 3 Convert moles reactant (5.68 mol) --> moles product
2 mol H2O produced 5.68 mol NH4NO 3 1 mol NH4NO 3 used

= 11.4 mol H2O produced

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 4 Convert moles product (11.4 mol) --> mass product
Called the THEORETICAL
18.02 g 11.4 mol H2O = 204 g H2O 1 mol

YIELD

ALWAYS FOLLOW THESE STEPS IN SOLVING STOICHIOMETRY PROBLEMS!

GENERAL PLAN FOR STOICHIOMETRY CALCULATIONS

Mass reactant Mass product

Moles reactant

Stoichiometric factor

Moles product

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 5 How much N2O is formed?
Total mass of reactants = total mass of products

454 g NH4NO3 = ___ g N2O + 204 g H2O

mass of N2O = 250. g

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 6 Calculate the percent

yield
If you isolated only 131 g of N2O, what is the percent yield?
This compares the theoretical (250. g) and actual (131 g) yields.

454 g of NH4NO3 --> N2O + 2 H2O

STEP 6 Calculate the percent yield
actual yield % yield = 100% theoretical yield 131 g % yield = 100% = 52.4% 250. g

Reaction to be Studied

2 Al + 3 Cl2 ---> Al2Cl6

PROBLEM: Mix 5.40 g of Al with 8.10 g of Cl2. What mass of Al2Cl6 can form? Ar Al = 27 Mr Cl2 = 70.5
Mass reactant Mass product

Moles reactant

Stoichiometric factor

Moles product

Cont

Which one is limiting reagent ? How much excess cocentration of other compound that is not a limiting reagent ?

Step 1 of LR problem: compare actual mole ratio of reactants to theoretical mole ratio.

Reactants must be in the mole ratio mol Cl 3

2 Al + 3 Cl2 ---> Al2Cl6

mol Al
2 =

Deciding on the Limiting Reactant 2 Al + 3 Cl2 ---> Al2Cl6

If

mol Cl2 3 > mol Al 2

There is not enough Al to use up all the Cl2

Lim reag = Al

Deciding on the Limiting Reactant 2 Al + 3 Cl2 ---> Al2Cl6

If

mol Cl2 3 < mol Al 2

There is not enough Cl2 to use up all the Al

Lim reag = Cl2

Step 2 of LR problem: Calculate moles of each reactant

We have 5.40 g of Al and 8.10 g of Cl2

1 mol 5.40 g Al = 0.200 mol Al 27.0 g 1 mol 8.10 g Cl2 = 0.114 mol Cl2 70.9 g

Find mole ratio of reactants

2 Al + 3 Cl2 ---> Al2Cl6
mol Cl2 0.114 mol = = 0.57 mol Al 0.200 mol
This would be 3/2, or 1.5/1, if reactants are present in the exact stoichiometric ratio.
Limiting reagent is

Cl2

CALCULATIONS: calculate mass of Al2Cl6 expected.

Step 1: Calculate moles of Al2Cl6 expected based on LR.
1 mol Al2Cl6 0.114 mol Cl2 = 0.0380 mol Al2Cl6 3 mol Cl2

Step 2: Calculate mass of Al2Cl6 expected based on LR.

0.0380 mol Al2Cl6 266.4 g Al2Cl6 = 10.1 g Al2Cl6 mol

How much of which reactant will remain when reaction is complete?

Cl2 was the limiting reactant. Therefore, Al was present in excess. But how much? First find how much Al was required.

Then find how much Al is in excess.

Calculating Excess Al
2 Al + 3 Cl2 0.200 mol
products

0.114 mol = LR

2 mol Al 0.114 mol Cl2 = 0.0760 mol Al req'd 3 mol Cl2

Excess Al = Al available - Al required

= 0.200 mol - 0.0760 mol

= 0.124 mol Al in excess

Using Stoichiometry to Determine a Formula

CxHy + some oxygen ---> 0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

First, recognize that all C in CO2 and all H in H2O is from CxHy.
+O2 Puddle of CxHy 0.115 g +O2

0.379 g CO2
1 CO2 molecule forms for each C atom in CxHy

0.1035 g H2O
1 H2O molecule forms for each 2 H atoms in CxHy

Using Stoichiometry to Determine a Formula

CxHy + some oxygen ---> 0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

First, recognize that all C in CO2 and all H in H2O is from CxHy. 1. Calculate amount of C in CO2 8.61 x 10-3 mol CO2 --> 8.61 x 10-3 mol C 2. Calculate amount of H in H2O 5.744 x 10-3 mol H2O -- >1.149 x 10-2 mol H

Using Stoichiometry to Determine a Formula

CxHy + some oxygen ---> 0.379 g CO2 + 0.1035 g H2O

Now find ratio of mol H/mol C to find values of x and y in CxHy. 1.149 x 10 -2 mol H/ 8.61 x 10-3 mol C = 1.33 mol H / 1.00 mol C = 4 mol H / 3 mol C Empirical formula = C3H4

Next step...
1. Precipitation reactions.

2. Acidbase reactions. 3. Oxidationreduction reactions.