Developmental Stages

By
Ahmer Abdullah
 Development: From Womb to Tomb
• To explicitly understand development we can divide it into two phases
(i) Intrauterine or prenatal development (ii) Chronological or
postnatal development.
(i) Intrauterine or prenatal development
• The development process starting from the very event of the
conception. It is divided into three stages
(1) The period of the zygote: Germinal Stage
(2) The period of the embryo: Embryonic stage
(3) The period of the fetus; Fetal Stage
Period of the zygote: Germinal Stage (Week 1-2)

• This stage begins at the time of conception. Conception is also known as

fertilization when sperm and eggs join together.
• Each cell of sperm and egg contains 23 number of chromosomes
respectively and the cell is also known as haploid cell.
• Haploid cells comprises of one complete set of chromosome (23 pairs)
• When haploid cells of male and female fuse together they form a diploid
cell via process known as Meiosis.
• Each diploid cell contains 46 number of chromosomes.
• The end result of this meiosis is the formation of zygote which is the first
face of the forthcoming baby.
Determination of Sex and stereotype

• A hereditary determination of sex after conception can be understand

by examining the chromosomes of normal men and women. The
karyotypes (an individual complete sets of chromosomes). Each of
the male and female gamete, sperm and ova respectively, contains 23
pairs of chromosomes. The 22 pairs are similar and known as
autosomes. The sex is determined by the 23rd chromosome which is
known as sex chromosome. The 23rd pair of each is different in a way
that male’s chromosome contains X and Y both whereas female
contains XX.
• Since centuries women had been tortured and disgraced for being
sole responsible of the sex determination but thanks to modern
science which successfully broke the stereotype about women for not
producing male heir.
Period of the embryo: Embryonic stage (Week 3-8)

• The zygote travels down through the fallopian tubes and implants
itself into the linings of the uterus.
• After the implantation, this zygote is known as embryo.
• The blood vessels start growing and form placenta.
• The basic structure of the embryo(head, chest and abdomen) and
organs start to form.
• The neural tube forms along the back which then develop into spinal
cord and brain.
• Heart begins to beat.
• The placenta is the structure connected to the uterus for the protection
of the embryo. It is a pan cake like shape organ and grows only in
pregnancy.
• The placenta is a power center for the embryo through which provision
of oxygen , nutrients and other substances is warranted.
• The umbilical cord is the medium or route which provides nourishment
and oxygen to the embryo.
• Amniotic sac is a thin-walled sac that surrounds the fetus during
pregnancy. The sac is filled with liquid made by the fetus (amniotic fluid)
and the membrane that covers the fetal side of the placenta (amnion).
This protects the fetus from injury. it also helps to regulate the
temperature of the fetus.
• The amniotic fluid constitutes initially the fluid from the mother but at
later stage it is makes up from the urine by the 20th week of
pregnancy.
• The amniotic fluid contains nutrients and antibodies to protect the
child.
• The amniotic fluid also serves as cushion for protecting the baby from
shocks and injury.
Genetic Development in the Uterus
• The development at genetic level is mostly at biochemical level. The
gene promote production of amino acids which subsequently form
enzymes and proteins. The enzymes and proteins are necessary for
the development and effective functioning of cells. For instance,
regulation of melanin (pigment) in the iris of the eye (eye color). Gene
also responsible for the allocation of cells to be part of brain, bones,
skin, circulatory system etc.
• Some genes are responsible for controlling the pace and duration of
development. These regulatory genes make other genes “turned on”
and “turned off”.
The Period of the Fetus; Fetal stage (Weeks 9-40)

• When embryo becomes 9 weeks old, it is known as fetus. The fetus at this
stage is about the size of a kidney bean.
• From 9 to 12 weeks sex organ begin to differentiate.
• At about 16 weeks, the size of fetus is about 4.5 inches. Fingers and toes are
fully developed and finger prints are visible.
• Hearing has developed and fetus can respond to sounds at 24 weeks.
• The vitals organs (heart, lungs, kidney, stomach, intestines) developed enough
to survive if born prematurely but risks are much higher.
• Brain continues to grow throughout the fetus stage.
• By the 40 weeks, fetus grow enough and there is little room left to move
around, therefore birth is imminent.
Prenatal abilities and activities

• The size of fetus grows about three inches by the 12th week. In the third
month of the prenatal period, the coordination between nervous and
muscular system develops which gives rise to interesting movements in
watery environment like kicking, making fists, twisting body etc. but these
movement are far so subtle to be felt by the women. Digestive and excretory
system also start working and allows fetus to swallow, digest and urinate.
• The size of fetus grows about eight to ten inches by the end of fourth
month. In the fourth month, the movement of tongue, lips, pharynx and
larynx increases and related activities started like suckling, swallowing,
munching, breathing, coughing and snorting. The kicking of fetus at this
stage can be felt by the women and heartbeat cam also be heard via
stethoscope.
Maternal Factors

• There are several maternal factors, for instance, genetic factors.

maternal stress and mental health issues (including socio-economic
factors), Pre-existing medical condition (polycystic ovary syndrome,
diabetes, endometriosis etc.), malnutrition, environmental
exposure( smoking, pollution, alcohol consumption etc.), obesity,
nutrition and usage of certain drugs
• These factors may influence pregnancy, childbirth, and the health of
both the mother and her child during pregnancy and long after the
birth.
Birth Defects

• The effects may be preterm birth (Premature birth), predisposition in

the child to develop insulin resistance and non-insulin dependent
diabetes later in life.
• Low birth weight is an important predictor of cardiovascular disease,
stroke, type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance and deficiency, hypertension,
and obesity.
• Developmental disabilities can involve a cognitive or sensory difficulty,
social or communications/language-related problem, a motor
impairment, adaptive delay or some combination of these. The Global
Disease Control Priorities Project estimates that 10% to 20% of
individuals worldwide have a developmental disability of some kind.
Teratogens
Any disease, drug, or other environmental agent that can harm a developing
embryo or fetus by causing physical deformities, severely retarded growth,
blindness, brain damage, or even death is known as Teratogens.
There are many teratogens some of are listed below:
1. Diseases Suffered by the Pregnant Woman: The Rubella
(German Measles) if transmitted in early pregnancy can cause blindness,
deafness, cardiac abnormalities, and mental retardation in babies. The risk of
eye and heart defects is greatest in the first 8 weeks, whereas deafness is
more common if the mother comes down with rubella in weeks 6 through
13, risk for the development of psychotic disorders is higher if infected in
first trimester.
2. Infectious diseases: The Toxoplasmosis, caused by a parasite found
in many animals. Pregnant women may acquire the parasite by eating
undercooked meat or by handling the feces of a family cat that has eaten
an infected animal. It can cause severe eye and brain damage if transmitted
to the prenatal organism during the first trimester, and can induce a
miscarriage if it strikes later in pregnancy.
3. Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STD): They are capable of
producing serious birth defects. For instance, syphilis can cause
miscarriage, serious eye, ear, bone, heart, or brain damage. Genital herpes
kills about one third of the all infected newborns and causes such
disabilities as blindness, brain damage, and can cause other serious
neurological disorders. HIV (AIDS) is also one of the fatal disease
transmitted from mother to baby (prenatal or postnatal).
4. Drugs: Certain drugs can pose harmful effect, for instance, heavy use of
aspirin is associated with fetal growth retardation. Similarly, lithium can cause
heart defects when taken in first trimester. Medications containing sex hormones
can also affect a developing embryo or fetus. For example, oral contraceptives
contain female sex hormones and, if a woman takes the pill without knowing
that she is pregnant, her child faces a slightly increased risk of heart defects and
other minor malformations.
The Thalidomide Tragedy: in 1960 a German drug company marketed a mild
tranquilizer by the name of thalidomide, sold over the counter (OTC) to alleviate
the symptoms of morning sickness. Thousands of women who had used
thalidomide during the first two months of pregnancy were suddenly giving birth
to babies with horrible birth defects. Thalidomide babies often had badly
deformed eyes, ears, noses, and hearts, and many displayed phocomelia—a
structural abnormality in which all or parts of limbs are missing and the feet or
hands may be attached directly to the torso.
• 5. Alcohol: Alcohol directly and indirectly affect the fetus by
compromising the placenta. In 1973, Kenneth Jones and his
colleagues described a fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) that affects many
children of alcoholic mothers. The most noticeable characteristics of
fetal alcohol syndrome are defects such as microcephaly (small head)
and malformations of the heart, limbs, joints, and face. The less
harmful form of this is known as fetal alcohol effects (FAE). These
effects include retarded physical growth and minor physical
abnormalities as well as such problems as poor motor skills, difficulty
paying attention, subnormal intellectual performance, and verbal
learning deficits.
6. Illicit Drugs: The marijuana, cocaine, and heroin has become so
widespread and can induce cognitive and behavioral defects. In utero
exposure to marijuana causes impairment of emotional regulation,
especially for boys. Pregnant women who report using the drug two or
more times per week often deliver babies who display tremors, sleep
disturbances. Second-trimester marijuana use was associated with
deficits in reading comprehension as well as underachievement.
7. Environmental Hazards: The environmental hazards like
radiation of atomic explosion, heavy metals like Lead, Zinc and Mercury
discharge into the air and water. Even a father’s exposure to
environmental toxins can affect couple’s children.