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Ultrastructureofcellwall 180718084651
Ultrastructureofcellwall 180718084651
Ultrastructureofcellwall 180718084651
Norania M. Mangandiri
Introduction:
• The cell wall - rigid, semi-permeable protective layer in some cell types.
• Cell wall is positioned next to the cell membrane (plasma membrane) in
most plant cells, fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea.
• Animal cells however, do not have a cell wall.
• The cell wall conducts many important functions in a cell:
1. Protection, 2. Structure, 3. Support.
• Cell wall composition varies depending on the organism.
In plants - mainly of strong fibers of the carbohydrate polymer
cellulose.
Cellulose is the major component of cotton fiber and wood and is
used in paper production.
Plant Cell Wall Structure
• There are at least 8000 to 15,000 glucose
monomers per cellulose molecule and are
0.25 to 0.5 µm long.
• The molecules are flat and ribbon like, and
lie parallel to each other. Hydrogen
bonding occurs between the molecules,
thus crystallizing and producing
aggregates. These aggregates are called
microfibril.
• Each microfibril contains 40 to 70 chains,
which lie side by side, and these can be
seen in Electron micrographs.
• The spaces between the microfibrils are
filled up with lignin, cutin, pectic
substances, hemicellulose, water etc. Thus,
the microfibril gains considerable strength.
• In primary cell wall, the orientation of microfibril is transverse to
the long axis, and during growth the arrangement may be
longitudinal.
• The orientation in secondary wall may differ from primary wall.
Tracheids and fibres show three layers in their secondary wall the
outer layer (S1), the central layer (S2) and the inner layer (S3), among
which the central (S2) is the thickest.
• The S1 and S3 layers lie adjacent to primary wall and cell lumen
respectively.
• These layers S1, S2 and S3 may be distinguished by their respective
orientation of cellulose microfibrils.
• In S1 and S3, the microfibrils are in the form of a lax helix and in S2, it
is a steep one
Primary (growing) plant cell wall:
• Major carbohydrates are cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
• cellulose microfibrils are linked via
hemicellulosic tethers to form the cellulose-
hemicellulose network, which is embedded
in the pectin matrix.
• Common hemicellulose in the primary cell
wall is xyloglucan
• Outer part of the primary cell wall of the
plant epidermis is usually impregnated with
cutin and wax
Secondary cell walls –range of compounds that modify their mechanical properties and permeability. The major polymers
that make up wood (largely secondary cell walls) include:
•cellulose, 35-50%
•xylan, 20-35%, a type of hemicellulose
•lignin, 10-25%, a complex phenolic polymer that penetrates the spaces in the cell wall between cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin components, driving out water and strengthening the wall.
Layers of Cell wall
•The primary cell wall, generally a thin,
flexible and extensible layer formed while
the cell is growing.
•The secondary cell wall, a thick layer
formed inside the primary cell wall after
the cell is fully grown. It is not found in all
cell types. Some cells, such as the
conducting cells in xylem, possess a
secondary wall containing lignin, which
strengthens and waterproofs the wall.
•The middle lamella, a layer rich in
pectins. This outermost layer forms the
interface between adjacent plant cells and
glues them together.
Plant Cell Wall Function
A major role of the cell wall is to form a framework for the cell to prevent over expansion.
Cellulose fibers, structural proteins, and other polysaccharides help to maintain the shape and
form of the cell. Additional functions of the cell wall include:
• Support - the cell wall provides mechanical strength and support. It also controls the direction
of cell growth.
• Withstand turgor pressure - turgor pressure is the force exerted against the cell wall as the
contents of the cell push the plasma membrane against the cell wall. This pressure helps a
plant to remain rigid and erect, but can also cause a cell to rupture.
• Regulate growth - sends signals for the cell to enter the cell cycle in order to divide and grow.
• Regulate diffusion - the cell wall is porous allowing some substances, including proteins, to
pass into the cell while keeping other substances out.
• Communication - cells communicate with one another via plasmodesmata (pores or channels
between plant cell walls that allow molecules and communication signals to pass between
individual plant cells).
• Protection - provides a barrier to protect against plant viruses and other pathogens. It also
helps to prevent water loss.
• Storage - stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in seeds.
The Cell Wall of Bacteria
• cell wall in prokaryotic bacteria is composed of peptidoglycan.
• Peptidoglycan is a polymer composed of double-sugars and
amino acids (protein subunits).
• This molecule gives the cell wall rigidity and helps to give bacteria
shape.
• Peptidoglycan molecules form sheets which enclose and protect
the bacterial plasma membrane.
• The cell wall in gram-positive bacteria contains several layers of
peptidoglycan. These stacked layers increase the thickness of the
cell wall.
• In gram-negative bacteria, the cell wall is not as thick because it
contains a much lower percentage of peptidoglycan.
• The gram-negative bacterial cell wall also contains an outer layer of
lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
• The LPS layer surrounds the peptidoglycan layer and acts as an
endotoxin (poison) in pathogenic bacteria (disease causing
bacteria).
• The LPS layer also protects gram-negative bacteria against certain
antibiotics, such as penicillins.
Cell Wall Structure of Bacteria:
Types of cell wall
1. Gram positive cell wall
• Cell wall composition of gram positive bacteria.
• Peptidoglycan
• Lipid
• Teichoic acid
2. Gram negative cell wall
• Cell wall composition of gram negative bacteria
• Peptidoglycan
• Outermembrane:
• Lipid
• Protein
• Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
Composition of cell wall:
1. Peptidoglycan:
• Peptidoglycan is porous cross linked polymer which is responsible for strength of cell wall.
• Peptidoglycan is composed of three components.
• Glycan backbone
• Tetra-peptide side chain ( chain of 4 amino acids) linked to NAM
• Peptide cross linkage
• Glycan backbone is the repeated unit of N-acetyl muramic acid (NAM) and N-acetyl
glycosamine (NAG) linked by β-glycosidic bond.
• The glycan backbone are cross linked by tetra-peptide linkage. The tetra-peptide are only
found in NAM.
• More than 100 peptidoglycan are known with the diversity focused on the chemistry of
peptide cross linkage and interbridge.
• Although the peptidoglycan chemistry vary from organism to organism the glycan
backbone ie NAG-NAM is same in all species of bacteria.
The aminoacids found in tetra-peptide are-
•L-alanine: 1st position in both gm+ve and
gm-ve bacteria
•D-glutamic acid: 2nd position
•D-aminopimelic acid/ L-lysine: 3rd position
(variation occurs)
•D-alanine: 4th position
Peptide cross linkage in Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria:
• Denielli and Davson have proposed that in the plasma membrane a double layer
lipid molecule is sandwiched between the two different layers of protein
molecules. The lipid layers are found internally and the protein molecules are
found externally. The inner ends of lipid molecules are non-polar and
hydrophobic where as outer ends are polar and hydrophilic.
Unit Membrane Model of Plasma Membrane
• Robertson in the year 1953 proposed the unit membrane model
consisting of three layers of the plasma membrane and it is
complimentary to the sandwich model. According to this there are
two outer layers of protein molecules each with 20 angstroms thick,
embracing a central layer of lipid molecules of about 35 angstroms
thick for a total thickness of 75 angstroms.
Robertson Model:
J. David Robertson
(1959) modified the
model of Danielli and
Davson by proposing
that the lipid bilayer is
covered on the two
surfaces by extended or
(3-protein molecules)