Science and Technology

in the 18th and 19th

centuries
In the 18th century, Coulomb
advanced physical science with studies
on electrodynamics, leading to
Coulomb's Law. Meanwhile, Priestley
discovered oxygen in 1774 by
collecting colorless gas from heated
mercury, later named oxygen by
Antoine Lavoisier.

Charles-Augustin de
Coulomb
Lavoisier, known as the
"Father of Modern
Chemistry," revealed the
carbon-oxygen reaction
forming carbon dioxide
and water.

Antoine Lavoisier
 By 1803, John Dalton
introduced the Atomic
Theory, asserting that all
matter consists of
indivisible atoms. This
theory revolutionized
physics.

John Dalton
 In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted found
that electric current generates magnetic
fields. This breakthrough led Michael
Faraday to create an initial electric motor
in 1821. Faraday's experiments on
electromagnetic induction in 1831 paved
the way for significant contributions to
electricity, documented in two published
volumes.
Michael Faraday
James Clerk Maxwell, in 1865, formulated
a groundbreaking theory on
electromagnetic radiation, stating that light,
magnetism, and electricity are different
manifestations of the same phenomenon.
His work explained that these fields travel
as waves at the speed of light. In 1873, he
expanded on this with a two-volume
discourse titled "A Treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism." James Clerk
Maxwell
 In 1874, Stoney proposed
electron theory. In 1879,
Crookes found cathode rays
using Geissler's vacuum
tube. Later, Goldstein
identified protons in
hydrogen-filled tubes.
George Johnstone Stoney
In the late 19th century, groundbreaking
scientific discoveries emerged. William
Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895
during cathode ray research. J. J.
Thomson's 1897 experiments with a
magnetic field revealed electrons'
negative charge. Henri Becquerel
uncovered radioactivity, later expanded Illustration of William
by Marie Curie. Roentgen and the discovery of
x-ray
 Simultaneously, in
communication, Alexander
Graham Bell patented the
telephone in 1876,
revolutionizing real-time
messaging, with inventors like
Elisha Gray enhancing
telegraph systems.
Philip Reis' "make-and-break"
telephoneess
 Carolus Linnaeus, the "Father of Taxonomy"
in biology, introduced binomial nomenclature,
a system for naming organisms. His influential
works, Species Plantarum (1753) and Systema
Naturae (1758), cataloged numerous plant
species. Linnaeus developed the Linnaean
Taxonomy, a nested classification system
based on creation patterns, not evolution.
Describing over 4,000 species, his binomial
nomenclature remains a foundational tool in
biology today.
Carolus Linnaeus
 In 1759, James Hutton suggested
gradual Earth mechanisms for fossil
variability. In 1813, Georges Cuvier
introduced Catastrophism, theorizing
frequent extinctions based on fossil
studies across different geologic
strata.

James Hutton
 In 1830, Charles Lyell
proposed the principle of
Uniformitarianism based on
Hutton's theory, which states
that the same geological
processes are operating today
as in the past.
Charles Lyell
 In the 19th century, conflicting
theories on organism variability
existed. In 1809, Jean-Baptiste de
Lamarck introduced the Theory of
Acquired Characteristics,
suggesting traits gained through an
organism's actions could be
inherited by its offspring.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
 In 1859, Charles Darwin introduced
"On the Origin of Species," asserting
that living organisms evolve through
natural selection. Based on his
observations during a South American
voyage (1831-1836), Darwin's
groundbreaking work was paralleled by
Alfred Wallace's similar research in the
same year.

Charles Darwin
Gregor Mendel, the "Father of Genetics,"
conducted pea plant breeding experiments
in the 1850s-1860s. His model of
inheritance, proposed post-Darwin,
explained genetic transmission in
offspring. Despite being overlooked until
the 1900s, Mendel's work provided the
Theory of Evolution with a crucial
mechanism for trait inheritance during
natural selection.
Gregor Mendel
Science and Technology in
the 20th century
The 20th-century witnessed significant scientific breakthroughs, enhancing
convenience and comfort. Max Planck's quantum theory (1900) and Albert Einstein's
theory of relativity (1905) transformed modern physics, illustrating groundbreaking
advancements.

Max Planck Albert Einstein Erwin Schrödinger

 IN 1926, ERWIN SCHRÖDINGER'S QUANTUM
MECHANICS EQUATION PAVED THE WAY FOR
SEMICONDUCTOR AND ATOMIC POWER
DEVELOPMENT. THIS EQUATION DESCRIBED
PARTICLE WAVE FUNCTIONS, RESTRICTING THEM TO
SPECIFIC MODES AND FIXED REGIONS.
CONCURRENTLY, ROBERT GODDARD LAUNCHED THE
FIRST SUCCESSFUL ROCKET IN 1926, AND A FEW
YEARS LATER, JAMES CHADWICK DISCOVERED THE
NEUTRON. GENETIC RESEARCH PROGRESSED WITH
OSWALD AVERY FINDING DNA CARRIES GENES IN
1944, AND IN 1953, FRANCIS CRICK AND JAMES
WATSON PROPOSED THE DOUBLE HELIX MODEL FOR
DNA, ILLUSTRATING ITS DOUBLE-STRANDED
STRUCTURE.
Medical research achieved significant
milestones in improving disease
diagnosis and treatment. In 1928,
Alexander Fleming discovered
penicillin, a groundbreaking drug
effective against bacterial infections
caused by staphylococci and
streptococci.

Alexander Fleming
 In 1945, Florey and Chain
created the first mass-produced
antibiotic. By 1955, Jerne
explained antibody formation,
revealing the body's ability to
fight antigens. Salk's 1955
polio vaccine was improved by
Sabin in 1961. By the century's
end, WHO declared smallpox
eradicated.

Luc Montagnier
In 1983, the human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) was discovered by Luc
Montagnier and Robert Gallo, which
led to the awareness of the causes of
acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS) and the measures needed to
avoid contracting HIV.

Robert Gallo
The first cloning in animals, through a
sheep named Dolly, was successfully
performed before the end of the 20th
century. It was a huge success in the
field of genetic research that Gregor
Mendel pioneered in 1866.

Dolly
 Computer and the
Age of Information
The Information Age, marked by the advent of computers and the
internet, revolutionized society by emphasizing information utilization
for innovative ideas. Beginning with Charles Babbage's early
computing concepts in 1812, the invention of the computer
transformed the technological landscape, giving rise to new digital
industries. A significant milestone occurred in the 1940s when Claude
E. Shannon, recognized as the "Father of Information Theory,"
formulated groundbreaking ideas on digital communication. His work,
including the Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication, laid the
foundation for subsequent technological advancements, shaping the
Information Age.
 SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

This model of communication involves an information source creating a message,

which is processed by a transmitter into a meaningful signal transmitted through a
channel. The message reaches a receiver, translated by a decoder for machine
communication. The Shannon-Weaver Model was considered incomplete due to lacking
feedback, leading to the development of alternative models like the transactional and
interactive models.
 SIGSLAY
During World War II, Bell Laboratories developed SIGSALY, a secure speech system, using the Green Hornet or X
System. In service from 1943 to 1946, SIGSALY employed highly secure one-time pad encryption, notably
safeguarding confidential talks between President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill. Alan
Turing's universal Turing machine (UTM), introduced in 1936, marked the inception of computing machines,
earning him the title "Father of the Modern Computer." In the same era, Konrad Zuse created the world's first
programmable computer, the Z3, operational in 1941. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry developed the
Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) in 1939, showcasing the dynamic random-access memory (DRAM or RAM)
method for data storage.
 THE DRAM STORAGE SYSTEM OF THE ATANASOFF-BERRY COMPUTER (ABC)

In 1942, Perry Crawford proposed using a magnetic drum for digital information storage in his MIT thesis.
Engineering Research Associates (ERA) used captured German Magnetophones in the 1950s for magnetic drums
and disks under Project Goldberg. The magnetic drum memory system was crucial for the US Navy's encryption
work and later adapted in US military universities. Remington Rand acquired ERA, becoming a leader in electronic
computers.
Meanwhile, British Post Office employee Tommy Harold Flowers invented the Colossus in 1943, the first
programmable electronic computer with 1,700 vacuum tubes. Contrary to expectations, Flowers' addition of valves
stabilized the Colossus, aiding in encrypting German messages during World War 2.
 UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER EXPANDED "BABY" COMPUTER

The Harvard Mark 1, an electromechanical computer, pioneered by Howard Aiken in

1944, computed mathematical tables. In 1948, the first stored-program electronic
computer ran a successful program. The Manchester Baby computer, created by Freddie
Williams and Tom Kilburn in 1946-47, marked a significant milestone. Shockley's team
mass-produced transistors in 1957, and the "traitorous eight" founded Fairchild
Semiconductors, contributing to the birth of Silicon Valley with companies like AMD
and Intel.
 IBM 604 ELECTRONIC CALCULATING PUNCH

In 1948, IBM introduced the 604 Electronic Calculating Punch, a computer advancing
mathematical operations. By 1957, it evolved into the 608, the first solid-state commercial
computer. Jack Kilby pioneered the integrated circuit (IC) chip in 1959, a breakthrough for
computer and phone "brains." In 1961, IBM's Stretch computer, the first all-transistor
supercomputer, pioneered "bytes." By the early 1970s, Intel and Fairchild led 8-bit
microprocessor development. The floppy disk, designed by IBM, emerged as the first
practical storage solution, revolutionizing computer instruction loading.
 FLOPPY DISK 5.25" BY IBM

The compact disc (CD) evolved from James Russell's invention, replacing vinyl with a
laser beam technology. During the Cold War, the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) emerged, connecting global computer networks. ARPANET,
used by various entities, paved the way for the internet's creation in 1990. Tim Berners-
Lee's World Wide Web (WWW) facilitated information sharing, introducing protocols
like HTTP and IP addresses. The internet's expansion led to technological
breakthroughs such as email, instant messaging, and online shopping, impacting society
with cultural, social, and moral implications.
THANK YOU!😊