Principles of Groundwater Flow

Movement of Groundwater
 Groundwater is in constant motion, although
the rate at which it moves is generally slower
than it would move in a stream because it
must pass through the intricate passageways
between free space in the rock.
 First the groundwater moves downward due
to the pull of gravity
 But it can also move upward because it will

flow from higher pressure areas to lower

pressure areas.
Movement of Groundwater
Forms of energy that ground water
possesses
• Mechanical
• Thermal
• Chemical
Principles of Groundwater Flow

 Ground water moves from

one region to another to
eliminate energy differentials.
 The flow of ground water is
controlled by the law of
physics and thermodynamics.
Outside Forces Acting on Ground Water

 Gravity pulls ground water

downward
 External pressure
 Atmospheric pressure above
the zone of saturation
Outside Forces Acting on Ground Water

 Molecular attraction

 Cause water to adhere to solid surfaces

 Creates surface tension in water when the

water is exposed to air
 This is the cause of the capillary
phenomenon
 Resistant Forces

Forces resisting the fluid movement

when ground water is flowing through a
porous media
Shear stresses acting tangentially to
the surface of solid
Normal stresses acting
perpendicularly to the surface.
These forces can be thought of as
 Hydraulic head = total mechanical
energy operating on a fluid mass per
unit weight

h = hydraulic head, measured in

Hydraulic terms of length
head

Derivation of Hydraulic Head from

Bernoulli Equation
 Principles of Groundwater Flow

 Piezometer- device used to measure the total

energy of fluid flowing through a pipe packed
with sand.
1. Open conduit at top and bottom
2. Water rises into conduit in direction
proportion to total fluid energy
3. Constructed of small-diameter well which
measures hydraulic head at a point in the aquifer
 Hydraulic Head
 Definition: Hydraulic head is the height above a datum plane such as sea level
of the column of water that can be supported by the hydraulic pressure at a given
point in a groundwater system.

 Description: Elevation to which water will rise in a borehole connected to a

point in an aquifer under pressure.

Why is hydraulic head important?

 Hydraulic heads provide an indication of the direction of groundwater flow and is

used to determine hydraulic gradients.
Hydraulic Head
Calculating the hydraulic head

 The top of a piezometer is 428 m above

the mean sea level. If the length of the
piezometer is 43 m and the depth to the
water is 26 m, calculate the elevation,
pressure and total head.
 Groundwater Movement General Concepts
The water table is
actually a sloping (from Keller, 2000, Figure 10.6)
surface.
Slope (gradient) is
determined by the
difference in water table
elevation (h) over a
specified distance (L).
Direction of flow is
downslope.
Flow rate depends on
the gradient and the
properties of the
aquifer.
S. Hughes, 2003
 Groundwater Movement

HYDRAULIC HEAD/ FLUID POTENTIAL = h (length

units)
• Measure of energy potential (essentially is a measure of
elevational/gravitational potential energy)
• The driving force for groundwater flow
• Water flows from high to low fluid potential or head (even
if this means it may go "uphill"!)
• Hydraulic head is used to determine the hydraulic gradient
 Groundwater Movement

• Hydraulic head = the driving force that moves

groundwater.
• The hydraulic head combines fluid pressure and
gradient, and can be though of as the standing
elevation that water will rise to in a well allowed to
come to equilibrium with the subsurface.
• Groundwater always moves from an area of higher
hydraulic head to an area of lower hydraulic head.
• Therefore, groundwater not only flows downward,
it can also flow laterally or upward.
 Groundwater Movement
General Concepts

• Hydraulic gradient for an unconfined aquifer =

approximately the slope of the water table.

S. Hughes, 2003
 Groundwater Movement

• Porosity = fraction (or %) of void space in rock or soil.

• Permeability = Similar to hydraulic conductivity; a
measure of an earth material to transmit fluid, but only in
terms of material properties, not fluid properties.
• Hydraulic conductivity = ability of material to allow
water to move through it, expressed in terms of m/day
(distance/time).
•It is a function of the size and shape of particles, and the
size, shape, and connectivity of pore spaces.

S. Hughes, 2003
 Hydraulic Head

 Total Hydraulic Head (drop velocity –

why?)

 Force Potential
(driver)
 Bernoulli’s equation suggests this
How to measure it?

 Piezometer
 Darcy's law

 Darcy's law is a phenomenologically

derived constitutive equation that
describes the flow of a fluid through a
porous medium.
 The law was formulated by Henry
Darcy based on the results of
experiments on the flow of water
through beds of sand.
 Darcy's law

 Darcy’s Law is the most fundamental

equation, govern groundwater movement

 K = hydraulic conductivity (m/d)

 Q = water discharge (m3/d)
 dh/dl = hydraulic gradient
Darcy's law
 Darcy's law

Rate of flow is directly proportional to drop in water table:

the greater the drop, the higher the flow.

Rate of flow is indirectly proportional to flow distance:

- the greater the distance, the lower the flow.

Hydraulic Gradient: h/l

Groundwater flow also affected by

permeability, k
Darcy’s Law
 Limitations of Darcy law
 The flow should be laminar.
 The pore spaces should not be very small.
Validity and Applicability of Darcy’s Law

 Reynolds Number

 Re = (rvd/m)

 r – density
 v – velocity
 d – characteristic distance
 m- viscosity
 Reynold number (Re)

 Reynold number (Re) is used to tell that

whether the flow is laminar is turbulent.
 If Re > 2100the inertial forces dominates
the viscous forces and the flow is
turbulent.
 If Re < 1100the viscous forces dominates
the inertial forces and the flow is laminar.