Module 2

Classification
CLASSIFICATION

Diversity of life: Five Kingdoms of Life: Discuss classification based

on (a) energy and Carbon utilization -Autotrophs, heterotrophs,
lithotropes (b) Ammonia excretion – aminotelic, uricoteliec, ureotelic
(c) Habitata- acquatic or terrestrial (d) Molecular taxonomy- three
major kingdoms of life.
Introduction
Classification of organisms is the process of organizing them into different groups
based on their characteristics and evolutionary relationships. The classification system
is essential for understanding the diversity of life on earth and studying the
relationships between different organisms.

The two main groups of organisms are animals and plants, and they are classified
based on their physical, morphological, and genetic characteristics. The classification
of animals and plants has gone through significant changes over time as new
technologies and methods have been developed to study them. In this context, this
topic covers the various methods used for the classification of animals and plants.
Aim

To help you all understand the diversity of life on earth and the
relationships between different organisms and to understand
the classification of animals and plants which is essential for
scientific research, conservation, and management of
ecosystems.
 a. Explain the diversity of life.

b. Describe the five kingdoms of life.

c. Demonstrate the classification system based on different parameters.

Objective
 Diversity of life

• From tiny bacteria and single-celled organisms to massive whales and towering trees, the diversity of life is truly
remarkable.
• It is estimated that there may be as many as 8.7 million different species of living organisms on Earth.
• These species exist in a wide range of environments, from the depths of the ocean to the tops of the highest
mountains, and are adapted to survive in a
vast array of different conditions.
• The diversity of life is the result of billions of years of
evolution, driven by natural selection and genetic
variation.
• Biodiversity or biological diversity is the term used to
denote variety and variability of life on earth.
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The five kingdoms of life

The five kingdoms of life is a classification system that was proposed by Robert Whittaker in
1969. It categorizes all living organisms into five groups:

• Monera (made up of prokaryotes)

• Protista (eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or fungi)
• Fungi (eukaryotic organisms such as yeasts, moulds and mushrooms)
• Plantae (Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multicellular)
• Animalia (All animals are members of the Kingdom Animalia)
Kingdom Monera The kingdom Monera consists of unicellular, prokaryotic,
microscopic, and the most ancient organisms.
Bacteria are the sole members of kingdom Monera. They are the most abundant microorganisms.

Bacteria are divided into four groups based on their shape.

• Coccus (cocci) - having spherical shape. Eg. Staphylococcus aureus

• Bacillus (bacilli) - having rod shape. Eg. Escherichia coli
• Spirillum (spirilla) - having spiral shape. Eg. Vibrio cholerae
• Vibrium (vibrio) - having comma shape. Eg. Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Archaebacteria and eubacteria are two major types of bacteria.

• Archaebacteria – These are the bacteria normally found in extreme

environments like hot springs, deep sea vents, and salt lakes. Archaebacteria
differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this feature is
responsible for their survival in extreme conditions. Eg. Methanogen (which are Methanogens under a microscope
present in the gut of animals such as cows and buffaloes). Their mode of nutrition
is autotrophic
• Eubacteria – these are the more common type of bacteria found in various
environments, including soil, water, and living organisms. They play crucial roles
in many ecological processes, including nutrient cycling and decomposition, and
some are pathogenic and cause diseases in humans and other organisms. Eg.
Blue-green algae (which make up the green substance found in water bodies.)

Autotrophic: capable of manufacturing complex organic nutritive compounds from simple

inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide, water, and nitrates, using energy from the Blue green algae in a water body
sun
 (eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or fungi)
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Protista is a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that do not fit into any other
kingdom. Protists are typically unicellular but can also exist as a colony of cells. All single-celled
eukaryotes are placed under Protista. Eg. euglena, paramecium, amoeba.

Organisms in this kingdom can be classified as:

• Chrysophytes
Greek word “protistos”, meaning “the very first“.
• Dinoflagellates
• Euglenoids
• Slime Moulds
• Protozoans
Euglena

Paramecium
Amoeba
Chrysophytes – They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are microscopic and
float passively in water currents. Eg. diatoms.(a type of photosynthesizing algae that can be found practically
wherever that is moist, including soils, freshwater bodies of water, and oceans)

Dinoflagellates – These organisms are mostly marine. They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red
depending on the main pigments present in their cells. Eg. Gonyaulax catenella

Euglenoids – (Euglenoids are unicellular microorganisms, that have a flexible body)

Majority of them are freshwater organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a rich layer
called pellicle which makes their body flexible. Eg. Euglena.

Slime Moulds – These organisms mainly grow on decaying plant and animal matter. Under suitable
conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and spread over several feet. Eg.
Physarum.

Protozoans – They are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. Eg. Amoeba. A heterotroph is an
organism that eats other plants or animals for energy and nutrients.
Physarum
 Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Fungi is a diverse group of
eukaryotic organisms that includes yeasts,
molds, and mushrooms.

• Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, meaning

they obtain nutrients by absorbing them from Mucor

other organisms.
• They have cell walls made up of chitin.
• Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually,
producing spores that can be dispersed over
long distances.
• Examples of fungi: Mucor, Aspergillus, Agaricus
Agaricus (a type of mushroom). Aspergillus

• Fungi are classified as Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and

Deuteromycetes.
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly called
plants.

Some of the characteristics of plants include:

• Cell wall made of cellulose.

• Presence of chloroplasts in cells.(Chloroplasts, the organelles responsible for photosynthesis,)
• Autotrophic: Plants are autotrophic organisms that can synthesize their own food through
photosynthesis.
• Production of spores or seeds
• Vascular tissue for the transport of water and nutrients in some groups.
Kingdom Animalia
This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and
their cells lack cell walls.

Some of the characteristics of animals include:

• Heterotrophic: Animals cannot produce their food and depend on other organisms for nutrition.
• Lack cell walls: Unlike plants and fungi, animals lack cell walls.
• Specialized tissues and organs: Animals have specialized tissues and organs that carry out
specific functions, such as a digestive system, nervous system, and circulatory system.
• Movement: Many animals have developed means of movement, such as legs, wings, fins, or
cilia.
• Sexual reproduction: Most animals reproduce sexually, involving the fusion of male and female
gametes.
Classification based on energy and carbon utilization
Based on the energy and carbon utilization by organisms, they are categorised as:

• Autotrophs
• Heterotrophs
• Lithotrophs
Autotrophs
Autotrophs are organisms that can produce their food using inorganic substances, such as
carbon dioxide, water, and minerals.

• They are also known as producers because they are the primary source of organic compounds
and energy for all other living organisms.
• Examples of autotrophs include green plants, algae, and some types of bacteria, such as
cyanobacteria.
Autotrophs can be further divided into two categories:
• Photoautotrophs: These are autotrophs that use sunlight to produce food via photosynthesis.
Examples include plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
• Chemoautotrophs: These are autotrophs that use chemical reactions to produce food. They are
typically found in extreme environments such as deep-sea hydrothermal vents, where they use
sulfur or iron as an energy source. Ex. Nitrosomonas, nitrobacter.
Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot produce their own food and depend on other
organisms for their energy and nutrients. Heterotrophs depend on the organic matter
produced by autotrophs for their survival.

Based on the mode of obtaining nutrients, heterotrophs are classified as:

• Herbivores – organisms that consume only plant material as their source of food. Ex. cow, rabbit, and
deer.
• Carnivores – organisms that consume only meat as their source of food. Ex. lion, tiger, and wolves.
• Omnivores – organisms that consume both plant and animal materials as their source of food. Ex.
humans, bears, pigs.
• Detritivores – organisms that feed on dead and decaying organic matter. Ex. worms, vultures.
• Parasites – organisms that live on or inside a host organism, obtaining nutrients and shelter from the
host while harming it. Ex. ticks, fleas, and tapeworms.
 Lithotrophs
Lithotrophs are a type of organism that obtain energy from inorganic substances, such as
minerals or chemical compounds like ammonia, instead of sunlight or organic matter.

They are capable of using chemical reactions involving these substances to generate energy
for their biological processes.

Some examples of lithotrophic organisms include nitrifying bacteria that convert ammonia to nitrate,
sulfur-oxidizing bacteria that obtain energy from sulfur compounds, and methanogenic archaea that
produce methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas.

Note: Chemoautotrophs and lithotrophs are sometimes used interchangeably, but they are not
exactly the same. Chemoautotrophs use chemical reactions to produce organic compounds,
while lithotrophs use inorganic compounds as a source of energy.

So all lithotrophs are chemoautotrophs, but not all chemoautotrophs are lithotrophs.

Nitrifying bacteria
Classification based on the mode of ammonia excretion

Based on the method in which animals excrete ammonia, they are classified as:

• Ammonotelic (excretes direct ammonia)

• Ureotelic (converts ammonia into urea and excretes)
• Uricotelic (converts ammonia into uric acid and excretes)
Ammonotelic
Ammonotelic organisms excrete nitrogenous waste directly in the form of ammonia.

• Many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects are ammonotelic in nature.
• Ammonia, as it is readily soluble, is generally excreted by diffusion across body surfaces or
through gill surfaces (in fish) as ammonium ions. (Ammonium hydroxide)
• Kidneys do not play any significant role in its removal.
• Ammonia is toxic and requires large amounts of water for excretion.
Ureotelic
Ureotelic animals convert ammonia to urea in the liver, which is then excreted through the
kidneys.
• Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes are ureotelic animals.
• Ammonia produced by metabolism is converted into urea in the liver of these animals and
released into the blood which is filtered and excreted out by the kidneys.
• Urea is much lesser toxic than ammonia and requires much lesser water for excretion.
Uricotelic
Uricotelic animals convert ammonia to uric acid, which is excreted in a solid form.

• Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects are examples of uricotelic organisms.
• These animals excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid in the form of insoluble solid or semi-solid
with a minimum loss of water.
• Uric acid is even less toxic as compared to urea and so requires even lesser water for excretion.
Classification based on the habitat
Based on the habitat in which organisms live in, they are classified as:

• Terrestrial organisms – Terrestrial organisms are the ones which live and grow on land. Examples of
terrestrial organisms include trees, grasses, insects, birds, and mammals. These organisms are
adapted to living in dry, oxygen-rich environments and face unique challenges such as water
conservation, exposure to sunlight, and gravity.
• Aquatic organisms – Aquatic organisms are those that live in water. Examples include fish, whales,
dolphins, sharks, sea turtles, crabs, lobsters, sea anemones, jellyfish etc. There are two main types
of aquatic organisms:
• Marine organisms – live in saltwater environments such as oceans
• Freshwater organisms – live in non-salty water sources such as rivers, lakes, and ponds.
 Classification based on molecular taxonomy
Based on the molecular taxonomy, Carl Woese and others proposed the three kingdom
classification in 1990.

• This method of classification divides cellular life forms into three domains, namely Archaea, Bacteria
and Eukarya.

Molecular Taxonomy is the classification of organisms on the basis of the

distribution and composition of chemical substances in them.
This method of classification is based upon:
1.The sequences of nucleotides in the cell's ribosomal RNAs (rRNA),
2.The cell's membrane lipid structure and
3.Its sensitivity to antibiotics
Archaea (archaebacteria)
• Archaea are prokaryotic cells.
• Archaea have membranes composed of branched hydrocarbon chains attached to glycerol by
ether linkages.
• The cell walls of Archaea contain no peptidoglycan.

Bacteria
• Bacteria are prokaryotic cells.
• They have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester
linkages.
• The cell walls of Bacteria, unlike the Archaea and the Eukarya, contain peptidoglycan.
Eukarya (eukaryotes)
• Eukarya have eukaryotic cells.
• They have membranes composed of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester
linkages.
• Not all Eukarya cells has a cell wall,
• For those with a cell wall, no peptidoglycan is present.

Each of archaea, bacteria and eukarya contains rRNA that are unique to them. Their rRNA contains
molecular regions which are distinct from each other.

Peptidoglycan is a large polymer that forms a mesh-like scaffold around

the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane.