MR3491 SENSORS AND

INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT ID - FORCE, MAGNETIC AND

HEADING SENSORS

Prepared by
A.R.SIVANESH
Assistant Professor Department
of Mechanical Engineering
Sri Ranganathar Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Coimbatore

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.Dl 1

 Syllabu
s
Strain Gage, Load Cell, Magnetic Sensors - t ypes, principle,
requirement and advantages: Magneto resistive - Hall
Effect - Current sensor Heading Sensors - Compass,
Gyroscope, Inclinometers

Prepared bv A.R.Sivanesh M.E., 2

 Strain Gage

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E..(Ph.D) 3

 DEFINITION

• A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that

converts a mechanical displacement into a change of
resistance.
• A strain gauge is a thin, wafer-like device that can be
attached to a variety of materials to measure applied strain.

r•

.....,
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--
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,
.
-
... ..,
I
'

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Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D)
II

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4
 STRUCTURE

• The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide

choice of shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications.
They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is mounted on
a backing material.
• They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected to
stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.

o............. ..·.1 --
=--
· ----- 5
 WORKING

• The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge

circuit. The change in resistance is proportional to applied
strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 6

 WORKING

• The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a

characteristic called the gauge factor, defined as unit change
in resistance per unit change in length, or

tiR/R
K =
til/1

• Gauge factor is related to Poisson's

ratio µ by,

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) K=1 + 2 µ 7

 TYPE
S
Based on principle of working :
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Piezoelectric

Based on mounting :
• Bonded strain gauge
• Unbonded strain gauge

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 8

 TYPE
S
Based on construction :
• Foll strain gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauge
• Photoelectric Strain gauge

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 9

 MECHANICAL STRAI N
GAUGE
• It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The bottom layer
has a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red arrow or
pointer. One layer is glued to one side of the crack and one
layer to the other. As the crack opens, the layers slide very
slowly past one another and the pointer moves over the scale.
The red crosshairs move on the scale as the crack widens.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 10

 ELECTRICAL STRA IN
GAUGE
• When an electrical wire is
stretched within the limits of
its elasticity such that it does
not break or permanently
deform, it become
will and
longer, changes that increase
narrower
its electrical resistance end­
to-end.
• Strain can be inferred by
measuring change in
resistance.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 11

 PI EZOELECTRIC STRAIN
GAUGE
• Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain is applied
over it. Strain can be calculated from voltage. Piezoelectric
strain gauges are the most sensitive and reliable devices.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 12

 BONDED STRAIN
GAUGE
• A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic wire,
etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is
cemented to the strained surface.

....········· ,. . .
.

---
C w,,oG!
(" ld

-
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 13
 UNBONDED STRAIN
GAUGE
• The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched
between two points in an insulating medium such as air. One
end of the wire is fixed and the other end is attached to a
movable element.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 14

 FOIL STRAIN
GAUGE
• The foil strain gage has metal foil photo-etchedin a grid
pattern on the electric insulator of the thin resin and gage
leads attached,

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 15

 SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE

• For measurements of smal l str semiconductor strain

ain,
gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil
gauges. Semiconduct or strain gauges depend on the
piezoresis t ive effects of silicon or germanium and measure
the change in resistance with stress as opposed to strain.

- ..
- . --
- 16
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D)
 STRA IN
GAUGE
STRAIN GAUGE SELECTION CRITERIA:
• Gauge Length
• Number of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern
• Grid Resistance
• temp er at u re sensitivity
• Carrier Material
• Gauge Width
• Availability
• low cost

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 17

 ADVANTAGES &
DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
• There is no moving part.
• It is small and
inexpensive.

Disadvantages
• It is non -li near.
• It needs to be calibrated.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 18

 APPLICATION
S

• Residual stress
• Vibration measurement
• Torque measurement
• Bending and deflection measurement
• Compression and tension measurement
• Strain measurement

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 19

 Load
Cell

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 20

 Load Cell

• Load cell is a sensor or a transducer that converts a load or force

acting on it into an electronic signal. This electronic signal can be a
voltage change, current change or frequency change depending on the
type of load cell and circuitry used.
There are many different kinds of load cells.
• Resisti ve load cells work on the principle of piezo-resistivity. When a
load/force/stress is applied to the sensor, it changes its resistance. This
change in resistance leads to a change in output voltage when a input
voltageis applied.
• Capacitive load cells work on the principle of change of capacitance
which is the ability of a system to hold a certain amount of charge
when a voltage is applied to it. For common parallel plate capacitors,
the capacitance is directly proportional to the amount of overlap of the
plates and the dielectric between the plates and inversely proportional
to the gap between the plates.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 21

 How does a resistiv e load cell works

• A load cell is made by using an elastic member (with

very highly repeatable deflection pattern) to which
a number of strain gauges are attached.
Resistive Load cell Pri nciple

. .. -

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 22

• In this particular load cell shown in above figure, there
are a total of four strain gauges that are bonded to the
upper and lower surfaces of the load cell.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 23

• When the load is applied to the body of a resistive load
cell as shown above, the elastic member, deflects as
shown and creates a strain at those locations due to
the stress applied . As a result, two of the strain gauges
are in compression, whereas the other two are in
tension as shown in below animation.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 24

• During a measurement, weight acts on the load cell's
metal spring element and causes elastic deform ation .
• This strain (positive or negative) is converted into an
electrical signal by a strain gauge {SG) installed on the
spring element. The simplest type of load cell 1s a
bending beam with a strain gauge.
• We use wheatstone bridge circuit to convert this
change in strain/resistance into voltage which is
proportional to the load.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 25

 W h e at st on e Bridge
Circuit
• The four strain gauges are configured in a Wheatstone
Bridge configuration with four separate resistors
connected as shown in what is called a Wheatstone
Bridge Net wo rk.
• An excitation volt age - usually lOV is applied to one set
of corners and the voltage difference is measured
between the other two corners.
• At equilibrium with no applied load, the volt age output
is zero or very close to zero when the four resistors
are closely matched in value. That is why it is referred
to as a balanced bridge circuit.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 26

 Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

c·'.- - -

.
I'
,. E
+-ill-f- -
Re
-'V \ .1\, - - - - ---'
-

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 27

• When the metallic member to which the strain gauges
are attached, is stressed by the application of a force,
the resulting strain - leads to a change in resistance in
one (or more) of the resistors.
• This change in resistance results in a change in output
voltage. This small change in output voltage (usually
about 20 mVolt of total change in response to full load)
can be measured and digitized after careful
amplification of the small milli-volt level signals to a
higher amplitude 0-SV or 0-10V signal.
• These load cells have been in use for many decades
now, and can provide very accurate readings but
require many tedious steps during the manufacturing
process
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 28
 Magnetic sensor

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 29

 M agn et ic
sensor

• A magnetic sensor usually refers to a sensor that converts the

magnitude and variations of a magnetic field into electric
signals.
• Magnetic fields, as exemplified by the magnetic field of the
earth (earth magnetism) or magnets are familiar yet invisible
phenomena.
• Magnetic sensors that convert invisible magnetic fields into
electric signals and into visible effects have long been the
subject of research.
• It started decades ago with sensors using the electromagnetic
induction effect and these efforts were extended to
applications of the galvanomagnetic effect, magnetoresistance
effect, Josephson effect and other physical phenomena.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.D) 30

 Magnetic sensors types

a) Coils
b) Reed switches
c) MR sensor elements
d) Hall elements
e) SQUID

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 31

 a)
Coils
• The coil is the most classic and simple form of sensor,
we will discuss here.
• Although a coil cannot be used alone to directly detect
a magnetic field, it can detect the variations in a
magnetic field.
• Bringing a magnet close to a coil will increase the
magnetic flux density in the coil. The increase of
magnetic flux density in the coil will also generate
opposing forces in the form of induced electromotive
force and induced current. When the coil stops moving,
the magnetic flux density variations also stop and the
induced electromotive force and
induced current cease.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 32
 a)
Coils

A magnet brought Into close contact with a

coll wlll Increase the magneHc Hux density In
the coll
and generate Induced electromotive force
ondInduced current.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 33

 a)
Coils
• Observing the induced electromotive force and induced
current will allow you to detect the ratio of change in
magnetic flux density and its direction. Used alone, a
coil provides only limited functionality. However, when
combined with other coils or magnetic materials, it can
become a highly sensitive magnetic sensor.
• Currently, magnetic sensors that use coils include
search coils, resolvers or rotation angle sensors as well
as fluxgate sensors, a type of sensor used in a broad
range of applicat ions .

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 34

 b) Reed
switches
• A reed switch consists of a glass tube encapsu lat ing
two reeds, the contacts, which come from the right and
left ends of the t ube.
• The reeds are made of nickel other magnetic
or
material and are separated by a gap. The glass tube is
filled with nitrogen or other inert gas to prevent the
activation (deterioration) of the contacts.
• The reed switch is normally open, but when both ends
of the magnetic mat er ial are exposed to a magnetic fi
eld, the magnetic mat er ial is magnetized and the
contacts are attracted to each other closing the circuit
(conduction state).

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 35

 b) Reed
switches

.•.• .

·•-
.
"'
Inert gos Gloss -
tube •

\
Reed/ (nickel ,
• ... . .. -...
etc.) ··­......-

-
When the magnetic material ls magnetized
due to exposure to a magnetic fie,ld the head of bothreeds Is
attracte to each other andcome Into contact (conduction stole).

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E., 36

 b) Reed switch
es
• A reed relay, a piece of commonly used industrial
equipment, can be made by combining a coil for
generat ing a magnetic field with a reed switch.
• Unlike semiconductor sensors such as MR sensor
elements or Hall elements (see belo w), the reed switch
operates without a power supply and is therefore
often used in automobiles or other locations where
power is di ff icult to supply.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 37

 c) MR sensor
elements
• An MR sensor element is a magnetic sensor element using the
M agnet o-Resist ance effect (MR effect}. There are a number
of MR sensor types using different operating principles. The
following describes the basic MR effect.
• The MR effect is a phenomenon where resistance changes
with changes in a magnetic field. It is an effect that occurs in
magnetic materials (for example, iron, nickel or cobalt).
• The MR effect requires an understand ing of electron spin and
how the Lorentz force operates using electron charges. When
electrons move through a ferromagnetic material (a material
with a certain level of magnetism} and the spinning of the
electrons fluctuates, the scattering probability (of electrons) in
the magnetized material rises and falls. This is what causes
the MR effect.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 38
 c) MR sensor
elemenst
• Electrons have two important parameters: charge and spin.
They have the same negative charge, but electron spin is of
two kinds: up-spin and down-spin.
• Electron spin was verified by an experiment in 1922 and it
was confirmed that electrons exh ibit elect ron ic angular
momentum and magnet ic moment characteristic t o
electrons. When electrons pass through conductive materials,
they scatter (electron scattering).
• Electron scattering is a phenomenon caused by static
electricity in the mat erial that causes electrons to deviate
from their normal trajectory.
• Lorentz force is a force that comes into play when mobile
part icles (electrons) in a conductive material are exposed to a
magnetic field. It affects all charged particles and does not rely
on electron SP.in . 39
Prepared by A.R.Slvanesli M.E.,(Ph.D)
 AMR sensor elements

• In 1856, William Thomson discovered Anisotropic

Magneto-Resistance effect (AMR effect) by observing a
ferromagnetic material placed in an external magnetic
field environment.
• When the magnetization direction in a ferromagnetic
material is parallel to the current, the electron orbital
becomes perpendicular to the current, which
max1m1zes resistance. This incr eases the spin­
dependent scattering causing elect ric resistance to rise.
• When the magnetization direction is perpendicular to
the current, the electron orbital becomes horizontal to
the current reducing the spin-dependent scattering,
which minimizes resistance.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 40
 AMR sensor elements

MagMluotton
ds•ction
l
Fenomognettc material

• •
P•rpendfcular magn,tiution dlrtttion Parollel maa,,otlutlon dlrtctlon

Electricity flows fr.ely = l1JW Limited nowof electricity htgh resistance

resistance

Prepared by A.R.Siva nesh M.E., 41

 AMR sensor elements

• The rate of change in resistance caused by the state

of the magnetic field is called magnetoresistive ratio
(MR ratio). The MR ratio for an AMR sensor element
is about 5%. The AMR sensor element is often used
in magnetic swit ches and rotation sensors because of
its simple structure.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 42

 GMR sensor elem ent
s
• The Giant Magneto-Resistive effect (GMR effect) was independently
and simultaneously discovered by Albert Fert and Peter Grunburg in
1988 by observing a non-magnetic conductive thin film structure
sandwiched between two conductive ferromagnetic material layers.
• The magnetization of each ferromagnet ic layer is exposed to the spin­
dependent scattering of electrons as they pass through the middle
layer.
• If the spin direction of electrons passing through the ferromagnetic
layer is opposite that of the magnetization of the ferromagnet ic
material, the Interaction effect is much weaker than when the direction
of spin is parallel to magnetizat ion.
• As a result, when the direction of magnet izat ion of the upper and
lower ferromagnetic material is parallel, resistance to the current
flowing along the boundary surface of the conductive material drops,
whi le it increases if the direction of magnetizat ion is ant i-parall el.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 43

 GMR sensor elements

Non-magnelicconducive Hon•magntllc conductive

•
matorial maflrial
Anijparalol mognelltallon direction
PalOllel magnefilallon
dlrtcllon

flectrldly ftowifreely•
e cueshlonc
n o l l t flowi o4 etectllclty
Um l s e• h l g r

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 44

 GMR sensor elements

• The GMR sensor element is a magnetic sensor element

applying the GMR effect. It has a magnetic sensitivity that is
between two to five times greater than that of an AMR sensor
element.
• This greater sensitivity allows a GMR sensor to detect minute
changes in magnetic flux densities that were previously not
possible. By replacing the coils in the read-writ e heads of a
hard disk drive, the heads can be made more compact and
more sensitive.
• This has vastly increased the storage densities of hard disks
increasing their storage capacities.
• The MR ratio of a GMR sensor element is about 20%.Their
high sensitivity makes GMR sensor elements the device of
choice for magnetic heads, rotational sensors and other
devices.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E., 45
 TMR sensor elements

• The Tunnel Magneto-Resistance effect (TMR effect} at

room temperature was discovered by Professor
Terunobu Miyazaki at Tohoku University in 1995.
• A TMR sensor element is a magnetic sensor element
using the TMR effect and configured from an extremely
thin nanometer level nonmagnetic insulation layer
sandwiched between two ferromagnetic layers.
• Electrons tunnel from one ferromagnetic layer into the
other via insulation layer. This is a quantum
mechanical phenomenon.
• Resistance decreases when the magnetization direction
of the two ferromagnetic materials is parallel
and
increases when it is antiparallel.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 46
 TMR sensor elements

LJ LJ
•
Pcm:lllelmogneflzoflon Antlporott.t mognetitaflon
dlreclion dlttcHon

Etechlclty flows freely= o,; 1eslstance Umllednow oretectrlcHy =highr

stonce

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 47

 d) Hall elements

• The Hall element is an application of the Hall Effect.

The Hall effect discovered by Edwin H. Hall in 1879
proved that the Lorentz force generated a voltage at
right angles to the direction of the current and
magnetic field.
• This voltage is called a Hall voltage and according to
Fleming's left hand rule the direction of the voltage
changes with the direction of magnetic flux.
• The magnitude and direction (plus, minus) of the
voltage make it possible to detect the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field (N-pole, S-pole).

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 48

 d) Hall elements

Current Hallelement
F
-

. .-
M•g11eticfteld Magneticflu density
diroctlon
Force Fh:mlng's
Current left handrua.

··-
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 49
 d) Hall elements

• The magnetic sensitivity of a Hall element is not as

good as that of magnetic resistance sensor element.
• However, as a magnetic sensor that does not rely on
magnetic material, it can be used in a fer rom agnetic
field environment or harsh environments and therefore
finds application as a current sensor or as a variety of
magnetic
switches.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 50

 e) SQUID

• Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

(SQUID} is a magnetic sensor element capable of
measuring minute magnetic fields by applying the
Josephson effect.
• SQUID, a device that combines a ring- shaped
superconductor with the Josephson Junction proposed
by Brian D. Josephson in 1962 is the most sensitive
magnetic sensor currently available.
• This sensor can detect the heart 's and brain's
electromagnetic fields, which are undetectable to
other sensor t echnologies.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 51

 Hall Effect

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 52

 Hall Effect
• Hall-effect sensors are the linear transducer s that are used to measure
the magnitude of the magnetic field. Working on the principle of Hall
Effect, these sensors generate a Hall volt age when a magnetic field is
detected, which is used to measure the magnet ic flux density.
• Linear sensors can measure the wide range of magnetic fields. Besides
magnetic fields, these sensors are also used for detecting proximity,
position, speed. For these sensors output voltage is directly proport ional
to the magnitude of the magnetic field.
• When a thin conductor (or semiconductor) has a steady flow of current
running through it and a magnet is placed so that Its magnet ic field
runs perpendicular to this current, the magnetic field of the current
reacts to the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, causing the
electrons flowing through the conductor to be pulled to one side of the
c0nductor, due to the Lorentz force. This creates a pot ent ial difference,
referred to as Hall voltage, in the conductor. The magnitude of the Hall
voltage is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
• The Lorentz force is the force that a particle experiences due ta electrical
and magnetic field 53
 Hall Effect

Lines of
Force
Directional
Magnetic
Field

Constant
Current Flow

"
+

Hall
Semiconductor Vol tage
Hall Elemen VH
,_ +-! -1t-- -=•-
i J
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D)
DC Supply 54
 Hall Effect

• Hall voltage is produced when the magnetic field of a

current flowing through a conductor reacts to the
magnetic field of a permanent magnet perpendicular
to the current flow.

• The Hall effect is put to use in sensors, where the

resulting Hall voltage can indicate the presence,
absence, or strength of a magnet ic fi eld. Although Hall
sensors operate by detecting a magnetic field, they can
be used for sensing a wide variety of parameters,
including position, temperature, current, and pressure.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 55

 Current Sensor

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 56

 Current
Sensor

• A device that is used to detect & also change current to

assessable output voltage is known as a current
sensor. This output voltage is simply proportional to
the current flow throughout the measured path.
• After that, this output voltage signal is used to display
the current measured within an ammeter, for
controlling purposes or simply stored for more analysis
within a data acquisition system. So this is the function
of a current sensor .

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 57

 Current Sensor Working
Principle
• The working principle of the current sensor is; once current is
supplied throughout a circuit or a wire then a voltage drop
takes place and also magnetic field will be generated nearby
the current -carrying conductor.
• So, there are two kinds of current sensing direct current
sensing & indirect current sensing.
• Direct sensing m ain ly depends on Ohm's law whereas indirect
sensing depends on Ampere's & Faraday's law. Direct Sensing
is used to measure the voltage drop associated with the flow
of current throughout passive electrical components.
• Similarly, indirect sensing is used to measure the magnetic
field nearby a current-carrying conductor. Aft er that, the
magnetic field which is produced is used for inducing
proportional current o voltage which is afterward changed to
use measurement or control purposes.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 58
 Current Sensor Specifications
• Measuring Range
The measuring range is the highest flow of current that a current sensor can measure up to
120A.

• Input Voltage
This is the required voltage to activate the device is +SV.

•Frequency Range
The range of frequency thi s sensor can operate is 20Hz - 20kHz.

• Response Time
The response time of t his sensor is the time taken between t he input excitation application &
the appearanceof the equivalent o/p signal.The response time of this sensor is< 20 ns.

• Isolat ion Voltage

The isolation voltage is the voltage that a sensor can handle to defend the devices connected to
it. If the voltage range is Increased than the fixed range then It can damage the curren t sensor
& gives inaccurate measurements.

• Accuracy
The accuracy of the current sensor is above 90%.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 59

 Typesof Current
Sensor

Shunt Re
• Shunt resistor type current sensor is mainly used for
sistor
measuring DC current. Once a DC current is supplied
throughout a resist or, then the voltage will be
produced across the resist or, so the shunt
resistor is designed based on this principle.
• The main benefits of these sensors are less cost,
response speed is fast, and accuracy is high whereas
the drawbacks are; the measurement circuit is not
isolated electrically from the flow of the current being
measured. This is appropriate in small amplitude and
low-frequency current measurements.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.O) 60
 Hall Effect Current
Sensors

• Hall current sensor is made according to the Hall effect and Ampere ' s
law principles. These sensors are used for measuring both AC & DC
currents with u p to 100 KHz fr equency . These sensors mainly include
a Hall effect device, core, and signal conditioning circuitry. They
operate based on the Hall Effect which states that, once current is
supplied throughout a conductor then it forms a magnetic field.
• If this conductor is arranged in another magnetic field, then the
magnetic field generated by the conductor wil l communicate with the
external magnetic field so that electrons move to a single side of the
conductor. So, this will create a voltage that is proport ional to the flow
of current throughout it & can be measured.
• The main benefits of these sensors are good isolation & high precision
whereas their drawbacks are; the influence speed is very slow. It has
high precision and good isolation and the disadvantages are; the
influence speed is slow & small current measurement lacks accuracy.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.D) 61
 Current Transformer

• A current transformer is also known as a current sensor which works

based on the electro magnetic induction principle. The main function of
this is to change the main large current value into a second smaller
current value for measurement & protection purposes.
• A current transformer mainly includes a closed iron core as well as
wind ings. The primary winding of this includes less number of turns &
is simply connected in series within the current line to be measured;
consequently, it frequently has the flow of current through it whereas
the secondary winding includes more turns & is simply connected in
series wit hin the measuring instrument as well as the protection
circuit.
• Once this transformer starts working, then its secondary circuit is
closed always, thus the series coil impedance for the protection circuit
& measuring instrument is extremely smal l.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.D) 62
 Current Sensor Circuit
Diagram

The current sensor switch circuit diagram

is shown below. Generally, current
sensors are mainly used where there is a
amount
necessityof
forcurrent used by aof particular
the measurement the
0 device or appliance. There are different IP+1
techniques are available to measure the IP+2 flow 1
of current. So in this circuit, we are 11, VIOUT
using a Hall effect current sensor like IP- 3 m 6
ACS712 IC. FT
l ER

ACS712 IC Pin Configuration

The ACS712 IC includes 8-pins where each
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 ACS712 IC Pin
• Configuration
Pins 1 & 2 (IP+): These are posit ive terminals that are
used for sensing current .
• Pins 3 & 4 (IP-): These are negative terminals that are
used for sensing curr ent .
• Pins (GND): This is a Ground pin.
• Pin6 (FILTER): This pin is used for the external capacitor
that sets the bandw idt h.
• Pin7 (VIOUT): This is an analog output signal pin.
• Pin8 (VCC): This is a power supply pin.

The IC ACS712 is a low-cost Hall Effect current sensor used

to measure up to 20A current. This IC incl udes a copper
conduct ion lane through which the flow of current is
measured . The o/p voltage of this is proportional to the
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 W or king

• The working of this current sensor circuit is quite

simple. Once current is supplied from Pins 1,2 and 3,4
throughout the conduction lane, then it produces a
magnetic field which is detected by the hall effect
sensor. After that, it is changed into proportional o/p
voltage. So, this equivalent o/p voltage will be attained
from the pin-1 of the ACS712 IC.
• The o/p from this circuit is used with Microcontroller's
Analog pins & thus accurate current flow value can be
simply determined. So, this kind of current sensor
module is used in Microcontroller based applications.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 65

 HEADING SENSORS

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 66

 HEADING SENSORS

• An earth's magnetic field sensor, a compass or its electrical

equivalent, the magnetic fluxgate, that provides the Heading
information from which the Autopilot computes steering
commands. The Heading Sensor is central to the control of
your Autopilot. Autopilot performance and, in many systems,
>Radar and Chart Plotter performance, will depend more on
Heading sensor accuracy than any other
on component. system
• The best steering algorithms
cannot compensateHeading
unstable and/or inaccurate Heading reference. for an
sensors vary between manufacturers and differ depending on
the intended application and vessel. More recently for
improved accuracy, Heading sensors have incorporated solid­
state accelerometers and rate gyros for better performance in
rough and in particular following seas.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.O) 67
 Compass
Sensor

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 68

 Compass
Sensor
• The invention of the compass date's back to the
2nd century. It was used by the Chinese for divination
alignment of building materials during construction. It was in
and
the 11th century that people started using Compass for
finding directions during navigation.
• Compass sensor is the device whose function is to give the
right directions with respect to the North and South magnetic
poles of the earth. The needle present on a compass always
points towards the geometric North of Earth. This device
makes use of principles of magnetism for operation.
• But this magnetic force of the earth is so weak that people
previously used to design compass by suspending a thin
magnetic strip. In the Compass present in smartphones
magnet is not used as a component causes
because it interference in communicat
69
 Digital Compass Sensor

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 70

 Digital Compass Sensor

• Digital Compass Sensor is actually a magnetometer that

can measure the Earth's magnetic field. With the use
of 'Hall Effect' and by calculating the ultralow
frequency signals coming from the North or South
direction, this sensor can calculate the orientation and
direction.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.D) 71

 Working
Principle
• The first compass used in the 11th century was a simple
structure with a bowl of water containing a magnetic needle
floating on it. Later many improved and reliable versions were
developed. Digital Compass Sensor that is used in the
smartphone is based on the magnetometer sensor.
• The resistance of the magnetic sensor present in
magnetometer changes in proportional to the magnetic field
present in a particular direction. The magnetometer measures
the magnetic fi eld strength and orientat ion .
• This information from magnetometer is stored by the CPU as
digital data. This Sensor always points towards the Geometric
North. The Compass found in electric devices is a solid-state
sensor. Usually, two or three magnetic sensors are present on
the device from which the microprocessor can read data and
detects the orientation of the device.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.O) 72
 M agnetic
CompassSensor
• There are two configurations Compass Sensors
of
available based on there working principle. They are
the Magnetic Compass and Gyro Comp ass. Magnetic
Compass contains a magnetic element to detect the
magnetic field. This magnetic element aligns itself with
magnetic lines of Earth's magnetic field.
• Magnetic Compass points towards the magnetic pole
Earth. Whereas Gyro compass points towards the true
poles of the earth. Gyro compass consists of a rapidly
spinn ing wheel.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 73

 Gyroscope Sensor

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 74

 Gyroscope
Sensor
• Gyroscope sensor is a device that can measure and
maintain the orientation and angular_velocity_of an
object. These are more advanced than acceler om eters.
These can measure the tilt and lateral orientat ion of t
he object whereas accelerometer can only measure the
linear motion.
• Gyroscope sensors are also called as Angular Rate
Sensor or Angular Velocity Sensors. These sensors are
installed in the applications where the orientat ion of t
he object is diff icult to sense by humans.
• Measured in degrees per second, angular velocity is the
change in t he rotational angle of the object per unit of
time.
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 75
 Gyroscope Sensor

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 76

 Gyroscope Sensor Working
Principle
• Besides sensing the angular velocity, Gyroscope sensors can
also measure the motion of the object. For more robust and
accurate motion sensing, in consumer electronics Gyroscope
sensors are combined with Accelerometer sensors.
• Depending on the direction there are three types of angular
rate measuremenst . Yaw- the horizontal rotation on a flat
surface when seen the object from above, Pit ch- Vertical
rotation as seen the object from front, Roll - the hor izont al rot
at ion when seen t he object from front.
• The concept of Coriolis force is used in Gyroscope sensors. In
this sensor to measure the angular rate, the rotation rate of
the sensor is converted into an electrical signal. Working
principle of Gyroscope sensor can be understood by observing
the working of Vibration Gyroscope sensor.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 77

 Gyroscope Sensor Working Principle
• This sensor consists of an internal vibrating element made up of crystal
mat erial in the shape of a double - T- structure. This structure
comprises a stationary part in the center with 'Sensing Arm' attached
to it and 'Drive Arm' on both sides.
• This double- T-structure is symmetrical. When an altern at ing vibration
electrical field is applied to the drive arms, continuous lateral
vibrations are produced. As Drive arms are symmet r ical, when one
arm moves to left t he other moves to the right, thus canceling out the
leaking vibrations. This keeps the stationary part at the center and
sensing arm remains static.
• When the external rotat ional force is applied to the sensor vertical
vibrations are caused on Drive arms. This leads to the vibration of the
Drive arms in the upward and downward directions due to which a rot
ational force acts on the stationary part in the center.
• Rotation of the stationary part leads to the vertical vibrat ions in
sensing arms. These vib rat ions caused in the sensing arm are
measured as a change in electrical charge. This change is used to
measure the
 Inclinometer

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 79

 Inclinometer

• An inclinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of

the inclination angle or deformation of any structure. The bent
is either depicted in percentage or degrees concerning gravity.
• Inclinometer sensors are used to measure the slope gradient
during activities like tunnelling, excavation and de-watering.
Such activities affect the ground that supports the structure.
• The inclinometer installation procedure depends on the
application fi eld. It can be installed vertically to monitor the
cut slope or any movement in the shor ing wall and
embankment. To monitor the settlement of the soil above the
spot of tunnelling, inclinometers are installed horizont ally.
• Inclinometer sensors are of different types. Each Inclinometer
system requires a combination of equipment and sensors to
measure and collect data.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 80

 Inclinometer

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Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 81

 Inclinometer

A digital inclinometer system is composed of the following

components:
• Inclinometer probe
• Inclinometer cable reel (marked at every 0.5 m / 1 m )
• Android Mobile Readout Unit
• Accessories: Cable Reel battery, Battery
Charger, Mobile battery, Mobile Charger
The digital inclinometer system is the most commonly
used one. For manua l inclinometer probes, the two MEMS
sensors are mounted 90° to each other (biaxial). The
probe ranges to ±30° from vertical.
The data is ret rieved using the t raversing app licat ion. Let
us understand each of t he components in det ail:
Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.D) 82
 Inclinometer

• The inclinometer probes are built using two types of

accelerometers:
• Servo-Accelerometer: The f orce-balanced sensing elements
housed in an inclinometer probe detect the change in tilt
(from reference). The probe consists of a couple of biaxial
servo-accelerometers. It is fitted with two sets of spring­
pressured wheels to guide the probe along the longitudinal
grooves of the inclinometer casing.
• MEMS Accelerometer: Such inclinometers are termed as
MEMS Inclinometers. Currently, the MEMS (Micro-Electro­
Mechanical Systems) technology is being used to build the t ilt
sensor probe. The MEMS consist of mechanical elements,
sensors, actuators and electronics on a common silicon
substrate through microfabrication t echnology.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 83

 Inclinometer

• Acceleration causes deflection of the proof mass from its

centre position. There are 32 sets of radial fingers around the
four sides of the square proof mass. These fingers are placed
between plates that are fixed to the substrate.
• Each finger and pair of fixed plates makes up a diff erential
capacitor. The deflection of the proof mass is determined by
measuring the different ial capacitance.
• By this method, both dynamic acceleration {i.e. shock or
vibration) and static acceleration {i.e. inclination or rotation)
can be sensed. Signal conditioning is carried out within
inclinometers so that a simple output signal is obtained.
• This output can be used in conjunction with a calibration
sheet to easily calculate the amount of tilt that has occurred.

Prepared by A.R.Sivanesh M.E.,(Ph.D) 84

 THANKYOU

Prepared by AR.Sivanesh M,E.,(Ph.01 85