PROCESSES

THAT SHAPE
LANDFORMS
The Earth's surface
features have existed
since the beginning, with
25% land and 75%
water. These features
create a basic visible
pattern for the Earth,
including oceans, seas,
and inland water. They
outline the broad outline
and major lines of the
Earth's face.
WHAT IS
LANDFORM
• Landforms are features on
the Earth’s surface that
make up the terrain, such
as mountains, valleys,
plains or plateaux. They
also include coastal
features, such as
peninsulas or bays, and
underwater features, such
as ocean basins and mid-
ocean ridges.
 Landforms are categorized by their
physical attributes, such as:

 elevation
 orientation
 slope
 rock exposure
 soil type
They can also be organized by the processes
that create them. The formation of landforms has
undergone two processes. One is the endogenous
process wherein it occurs beneath the surface of the
Earth. The surface of the Earth is made up of thick
slabs rocks called plates that make up the different
continents and oceanic basins of the Earth and
move and interact with each other. The movement
of the Earth’s crust is also referred to tectonic forces.
Endogenic
Process
 Endogenic Process - Concept
• The term "endogenic process" refers to the internal processes that occur within the Earth, driven by heat and
other forces originating from its interior.
• These processes play a pivotal role in shaping the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust and the uppermost
mantle.
• Diastrophism and Sudden Movements are the two basic forms of earth movements.
• Earth's interior heat is the ultimate source of energy that drives endogenic movements.

• Rotational and tidal friction, radiation, and primordial heat from the earth's origin all contribute to this
energy.
• The majority of the earth's internal heat comes from radioactive decay which accounts for 50% of it and
gravitation which causes pressure gradients.
• The lithosphere experiences diastrophism and volcanism as a result of the energy released by geothermal
gradients and internal heat flux.
• The action of endogenic forces is unequal due to changes in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within,
strength, and crustal thickness. As a result, the original tectonically regulated crustal surface is not homogeneous.
 Plate Tectonics
•The Earth's lithosphere is
divided into several large
and small tectonic plates
that float on the semi-fluid
asthenosphere beneath
them. The movement and
interaction of these plates,
such as converging
(coming together),
diverging (moving apart),
or sliding past one another,
lead to various geological
 Volcanic Activity
•The movement of
molten rock (magma)
from the Earth's mantle
to its surface, resulting in
volcanic eruptions. This
can lead to the formation
of volcanic landforms like
volcanoes, lava plateaus,
and geysers.
Seismic Activity
(Earthquakes)
•Caused by the
sudden release of
energy in the Earth's
crust, creating
seismic waves. This
release is usually due
to the movement of
tectonic plates or
volcanic activity.
Mountain •The formation of mountain ranges
Building due to the collision and compression
(Orogenesis) of tectonic plates.
 Forces Behind Endogenic
Movements

 Temperature and pressure differences across different

layers of the earth cause density variances, which cause
convection currents.
 The lithospheric plates (crust and upper mantle) are
driven by convection currents in the mantle, and the
movement of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the
cause of endogenic movements.
 Convection currents can be influenced by the Earth's
rotation (Coriolis effect).
 The nature and location of endogenic motions are
determined by the destination of convection currents.
GEOMORPHIC
PROCESSES
Diastrophic
Movements
 Diastrophism refers to all processes that
move, elevate, or deform the earth's crust
due to diastrophic movements (deforming
movements) such as folding, faulting,
warping (bending or twisting of a large
area), and fracturing.
 Diastrophic changes are slow and can last
for thousands of years.
 Diastrophic movements are further
classified into epeirogenic and
orogenic movements.
 Orogenic Processes
 Orogenic or mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth's surface,
as in plate tectonics. The Himalayan-Alpine orogeny is the best instance of this
case.
 These processes are further classified into Tension and Compression.
 Fissures are caused by tension i.e. when force is acting away from a point in two
directions.
o The Sierra Nevada (The USA) mountain range is the best example of a
mountain that is formed by tension.
 Folds appear as a result of compression i.e. when force is acting towards a
point.
o The Himalayas is the best example of a mountain that is formed by
compression.
 Epeirogenic Processes

 Movements that form continents are known as epeirogenic or continent-forming movements.

 They are also known as radial movements because they act along the radius of the earth.
 They can move towards (subsidence) or away from (uplift) the center.
 They create land upheavals or depressions with long-wavelength undulations (wavy surface)
and little folding.
 The present-day drainage divides between Limpopo and Zambezi rivers in southern Africa is
a classic example of this type.
 Epeirogenic movements are further classified into Downward and Upward.
 Subsidence occurs when movement is in a downward direction.
 It is uplifted from the center when it is away. Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces,
sea caves, and so on are examples of uplift.
 The lithospheric plate boundaries are prone
to sudden geomorphic movements.

Because of the pressure caused by the

Sudden pushing and pulling of magma in the
Movements mantle, the plate boundaries are extremely
unstable.
Earthquakes and volcanoes are the two best
examples of sudden movements that cause
significant deformation in a short span of
time.
 Formation of Landforms:
o Mountain Ranges: Processes like
orogenesis lead to the uplift and
formation of mountain chains such as
Significance the Himalayas, the Andes, and the
Alps.
of o Ocean Basins: Divergent
Endogenic boundaries, where tectonic plates
Processes move apart, can give rise to ocean
basins. The mid-oceanic ridges are
examples of such formations.
o Island Arcs: Convergent boundaries
between oceanic plates can result in
volcanic island arcs like the Aleutian
Islands.
• Mineral and Energy
Resources:
• Many valuable mineral
deposits are associated
with endogenic processes,
especially volcanic and
tectonic activities.
• Geothermal energy,
harnessed from the
Earth's internal heat, is a
direct outcome of
endogenic processes.
•Influencing
Climate: Large volcanic
eruptions can release
vast amounts of ash and
sulfur dioxide into the
atmosphere, affecting
global climates. For
example, the 1815
eruption of Mount
Tambora led to the "Year
Without a Summer" in
1816.
•Regulating Earth's
Temperature: The
heat flow from the
Earth's interior to
the surface, driven
by endogenic
processes, plays a
role in regulating
the planet's
surface
temperature.
• Driving the
Hydrothermal
Systems: The heat
from the Earth's
interior can lead to
hydrothermal
circulations,
resulting in
features like
geysers, hot
springs, and
hydrothermal
vents in ocean
floors.
• Role in the Carbon
Cycle: Volcanic eruptions
release carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere,
while the subduction of
oceanic crust (with
carbon-rich sediments)
into the mantle acts as a
carbon sink, playing a role
in the long-term carbon
cycle.
• Metamorphism of
Rocks: The heat and
pressure from
endogenic
processes can
transform rocks into
new types, known
as metamorphic
rocks.
Exogenic
processes
 The processes which occur on the earth’s surface due to the influence of exogenic forces are
known as exogenic processes.
 It occurs at or near the earth's surface that makes the surface wear away.
 Exogenic processes are destructive in nature and are responsible for the degradation and
sculpting of the earth's surface.
 Exogenic processes take their energy from the atmosphere, which is determined by the sun's
ultimate energy as well as gradients caused by tectonic causes.
 Because the earth's surface has varied climatic zones, the exogenic geomorphic processes differ
from one another.
 Temperature and precipitation are two essential climatic elements that influence a variety of
processes.
 Denudation is a broad term that encompasses all exogenic geomorphic processes. The
word 'denude' means to remove or reveal.
 Denudation includes weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion, and
transportation.
Types of Exogenic
Processes
 Weathering
 It can occur physically by
disintegrating the rocks
physically due to factors like
pressure release, abrasion,
animals, growth of plants as
well as chemically through
chemical changes such as water,
carbon dioxide, living
organisms, and acid rain
breaking them eventually.
 As very little or no motion of
materials takes place in
weathering, it is an in-situ or
on-site process.
 The weathered material is
carried farther away by erosion.
 Weathering is further classified into:

o Physical weathering - Mechanical disintegration of rocks occurs

as a result of temperature variations, freeze-thaw cycles, wet-dry
cycles, salt crystallization, animal and plant activities, and other
factors.
o Chemical weathering - Chemical weathering is the process of
rocks and soil decomposing chemically.
o Biological weathering - Biological weathering is caused by a
variety of biological processes such as organism development and
movement. They also bring with them the possibility of physical or
chemical deterioration.
 Erosion
 The earthen materials are carried away by natural
forces such as wind, water, ice, and gravity.

 Erosion begins with the process called weathering.

 Flowing surface water Erosion - The terrain formed by

the surface flow is called river terrain.

 Wind Erosion - These terrains are formed in dry and

semi-arid areas where the effects of wind dominate.
These terrains are called aeolian.

 Glacier Erosion - These terrains were carved by alpine

glaciers.

 Wave Erosion - They are formed by the action of

waves at the edges of the continent.

 Karst Erosion - These terrains are formed by the action

of groundwater in karst or limestone areas.
 Sedimentation

 It is a natural process where sediments are deposited

at the bottom and undergo changes and form into
solid structures.

 Sediments are particles that have been broken down.

 The size of the sediments is categorized, ranging

from silts and muds to gravels and boulders.

 The main factors that control the breakdown of rocks

into sediments are:
o Climate
o Topography
o Vegetation
o Properties (physical and chemical) of the rock
 The slow and fast mass movements, also known as slope
movement or mass wasting, affect the shallow to deep
columns of material and works creep, flow, slide, and fall.

The bedrock, as well as the results of weathering, are

subjected to gravitational attraction. Weathering isn't a
prerequisite for mass movement, but it certainly helps.
Mass
Movements Erosion does not apply to mass wasting because it is led
solely by gravity and has no impact from geomorphic
agents such as waves, currents, glaciers, water, or wind.

Over steepened slopes, water, earthquake, and vegetation

removal are the factors that trigger it.
 Mass Movements
can be classified
into:

o Slow movements - Such

as solifluction, creep
o Fast movements -
Such as earthflow,
mudflow, avalanches
 Endogenic Forces
These are internal forces that exist deep inside the Earth.
These forces are also known as ‘constructive forces’ as they create
relief features on the surface of the Earth.
The ultimate source of energy behind forces that drive endogenic
movements is earth’s internal heat.
Differences in temperature and pressure (temperature gradients or
geothermal gradients and pressure gradients) among various layers
of the earth give rise to density differences and these density
differences give rise to conventional currents.
Convection currents in the mantle drive the lithospheric plates (crust The exogenic forces derive their energy from the atmosphere
and upper mantle) and the movement of the lithospheric plates
(tectonics) is the cause behind endogenic movements.
Endogenic forces produce after-effects that are visible only after it
causes sudden damage.
Examples: Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Exogenic Forces
These are external forces that operate and act on the surface of the
Earth.
These forces are also known as ‘destructive forces’ as they at times
result in destruction of the existing landforms through weathering
and erosional activities.
Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are the main
exogenic processes.
All the movements either within the earth or on the surface of the
earth occur due to gradients– from higher levels to lower levels, from
high pressure to low pressure etc.
determined by the ultimate energy from the sun and also the
gradient created by tectonic factors. Those slopes on earth surfaces
are mainly created by tectonic factors or earth movements due to
endogenic forces.
Exogenic forces create changes visible over a period of thousands or
millions of years.
Examples: Winds, rivers, glaciers etc
Similarities between
Endogenic and Exogenic
process

1. Endogenic and exogenic processes are

geomorphological processes.
2. They both participate in the formation of the
earth’s landforms.
3. Both are natural processes that do not require
human intervention.
Conclusion
• Endogenic processes shape our planet and human
civilizations by determining mountain ranges,
valleys, and land placement. Understanding these
processes is crucial for safety, planning, and
sustainable future, especially in geologically active
regions. Exogenic geomorphic movements, such as
weathering and erosion, result from these
processes. Although most effects are minor, they
have a significant long-term impact on rocks due
to ongoing exhaustion. Understanding these
processes is not just academic interest but is
essential for our safety and sustainable future.