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Biology Remedial - 2
Biology Remedial - 2
Biology Remedial - 2
Learning objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to::
Group biochemical molecules as inorganic and organic.
Explain which chemical elements are found most often in biochemical
molecules.
Describe and explain the properties and importance of water to living
organisms, respectively.
Explain the functions of essential elements in living things.
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UNIT 2: BIOCHEMICAL MOLECULES
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All living things are composed from these 6 elements.
The 4 most common elements in living organism are, in order, H, C,O & N.
The biological importance of H, O, N & C is largely due to having valences of 1,2,3 & 4 respectively
& their ability to form more stable covalent bonds than any other elements with these valences.
C, H, and O & N chemically join or bond together to form 4 large units of organization called
organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins & nucleic acids).
Biomolecules are formed by joining many small units together to form a long chain and process is
called synthesis under a process called condensation or dehydration synthesis.
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Carbohydrates
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Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are classified into groups based on carbon numbers that they have.
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• These are :
• Trioses (3C)
• Tetroses (4C)
• Pentoses (5C)
• Hexoses (6C) &
• heptoses (7C).
• Pentoses & hexoses are the most common
monosaccharides.
• One of the most common monosaccharides is
glucose.
• A glucose molecule consists of six atoms in a ring.
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The most common monosaccharides are:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
4. Ribose and
The structure of monosaccharides
5. Deoxyribose
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What are the biological importance of glucose?
It is important for brain cells
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Monosaccharides have two conformations.
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Fructose
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Galactose
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Based on functional groups; carbohydrates are grouped as aldose sugar
functional groups).
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Based on chemical reaction they undergo:
1. Reducing sugar
The two common tests for the presence of reducing sugar are
Benedict's test & Fehling's test, which make use of the ability
of these sugars to reduce copper from a valence of 2 (CuSO4)
to a valence of 1 (Cu2O).
they fold into compact shape & they are easily converted to
polysaccharides.
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Chitin is closely related to cellulose in structure & function as
being a structural polysaccharide.
It occurs in cell wall of fungi & exoskeleton of arthropods.
Murein acts as the strengthening material of bacterial cell wall.
Pectin are polysaccharides of galactose & galacturonic acid
residues, & is an important component of the first layer of a cell wall.
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Lipids
Are consists of C, H and O.
Lipids are also insoluble in water & are said to be hydrophobic (water-hating).
fats are solid at room temperature (10-20o C) & oils are liquid at room
temperature (10-20o C).
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The physical appearance of fat which The physical appearance of oil
is solid at room temperature. which is liquid at room temperature.
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Lipids are made up of fatty acids & glycerol (an alcohol).
Fatty acids contain the acid group -COOH (the carboxyl group).
Fatty acids sometimes contain one or more double bonds (C=C) & called
unsaturated fatty acids.
Fatty acids & lipids that lacking double bond are said to be saturated.
Unsaturated fatty acids melt at much lower temperature than saturated
fatty acids.
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The higher the proportion of unsaturated fatty acid the more likely the
lipid to be liquid at a given temperature and most lipids are triglycerides.
Usually all three -OH groups undergo condensation reaction with fatty
acid, & the lipid formed is triglyceride (triacylglycerol).
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In living organisms lipids (triglycerides) have the following major
function:
Source of energy & heat.
A given mass of lipid will yield more energy on oxidation than an equal
mass of carbohydrate.
This is because lipids have a higher proportion of hydrogen compared to
carbohydrates.
Structural constituent of cell membrane, e.g. phospholipids & glycolipids.
Synthesis of hormones such as testosterone & estrogen, e.g. steroids
(cholesterol in the tissue of mammals)
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Both bile acids that involve in digestion & vitamin D
(involve in calcium ion absorption) are manufactured
from steroid such as cholesterol.
Plant scents are derivatives of fatty acids.
They are attractive to insects & thus aid pollination
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Proteins
Proteins are made up of a number of units called amino acids.
More than 170 amino acids are currently known to occur in cells & tissues,
but only 20 are commonly found in proteins.
In the structure of amino acids there is a central carbon (known as -carbon).
This carbon is attached with
Carboxylic group (-COOH),
A basic amino group (-NH)
A hydrogen atom and
A variable part known as the R group.
The structure of
One amino acid is different from the other by this R group. amino acid
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Amino acids can react with each other by condensation.
amino group of one amino acid reacts with the carboxylic group of the
other with the removal of water.
The bond formed between them is called peptide bond, & the resulting
compound is a dipeptide.
Three amino acid molecules will combine in this way to form tripeptide,
& so on.
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Plants can synthesize all the amino acids they require from simpler substances
An essential amino acid is one, which must be included in the diet because either it
cannot be made in the body at all, or it is made too slowly to meet needs.
Non-essential amino acid is the one that can be synthesized in the cell or in the body.
In the living cell the sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain is determined by DNA.
There are 4 separate level of structure & organization of proteins know as primary,
secondary, tertiary & quaternary.
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A. Primary structure: It is the linear sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.
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Tertiary structure
Usually the polypeptide chain bends & folds extensively forming a precise and
compact globular shape.
This is the protein's tertiary structure & the shape is maintained by ionic,
Hydrogen & Disulphide bonds as well as hydrophobic interactions
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Quaternary structure
Many highly complex proteins consists of more than one polypeptide chain.
The separate chains are held together by hydrophobic interactions,
hydrogen & ionic bonds.
Their precise arrangement is known as the quaternary structure.
Because of the complexity of protein molecules & their diversity of
function they classified in various ways & three of them are:
Their structure
Their composition and
According to functions
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.
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Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids genetic information storage molecules which are made of
polymers of nucleotides.
Individual nucleotides comprise three parts:
a) Phosphoric acid (phosphate H3PO4) which has the same structure in all
nucleotides.
b) Pentose sugar are of two types known as ribose (C5H10O5) and
deoxyribose(C5H10O4)
c) Organic (Nitrogenous base).
• There are five different bases which are divided into two groups as:
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1. Purine Bases
Guanine Adenine
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2. Pyrimidines
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The three components of a nucleotide are combined by condensation reactions
to give a nucleotide and linked with a phosphodiester bonds.
The function of nucleotides is the formation of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA,
which play vital roles in protein synthesis and heredity.
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Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
is a double-stranded polymer of nucleotide.
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Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) or" work bench"
Is a large and complex molecule made up of both double and single
helices.
It is found in the cytoplasm where it makes up more than half the mass of
the total RNA of a cell
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Transfer RNA (tRNA) or "Adapter"
is a small molecule comprising a single strand.
It makes up 10-15% of the cell's RNA and all types are fundamentally similar.
It forms a clover shape with one end of the chain ending in a cytosine-cytosine-
adenine sequence.
There are at least twenty types of tRNA, each one carrying a different amino acid.
This lines up alongside the appropriate codon on the mRNA during protein
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synthesis.
Messenger RNA (mRNA)" or blue print"
Produced in the nucleus and is a mirror copy of part of one strand of the DNA
helix.
It enters the cytoplasm where it associates with the ribosome and acts as a
template for protein synthesis.
It is easily and quickly broken down, sometimes existing for only a matter of
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minutes.
RNA DNA
Pentose sugar is ribose Pentose sugar is deoxyribose
Single polynucleotide chain Double poynucleotide chain
Smaller molecular mass Large molecular mass
In most case single helix chin Always a double chain
Organic bases present are adenine(A), Organic base present are Adenine(A), guanine(G),
guanine(G), cytosine(C) and uracil(U) cytocine(C) and thymine(T)
Ratio of A and U to C and G varies Ratio of A and T to C and G is one
Manufactured in the nucleus but found Found almost entirely in the nucleus
throughout the cell
Amount varies from cell to cell (and within a cell Amount is constant for all cells of a species (except
according to metabolic activity) gametes and spores)
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Differences between RNA and DNA
Inorganic Bases of Life (Water and Minerals)
Water
Water is the most abundant making up between 60-95% of the fresh mass of
living organism.
Without water, life could not exist on this planet.
It is important for two reasons.
First it is a vital chemical constituent of living cells, &
Secondly it provides an environment for those organisms that live in water.
• The interesting chemical and physical properties of water are due to
its
• Small size,
• Its polarity &
• Hydrogen bonding between its molecules.
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Plants: Animals:
In osmosis & turgidity Transport in blood vascular, lymphatic,
Reagent in photosynthesis excretory systems
Transpiration Osmo-regulation
Translocation of inorganic Cooling by evaporation
ions & organic molecules Lubrication, as in joints
Germination of seeds Support: hydrostatic skeleton of e.g.
annelid worms
Protection, e.g. lachrymal fluid (tear),
mucus
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For all organisms water has the following important:
Structure (high water content of the cell)
Solvent & medium for diffusion
Reagent in hydrolysis
Support for aquatic organisms
Fertilization by swimming gametes
Dispersal of seeds, gametes & larval stage of aquatic organisms, & seeds
of some terrestrial species, e.g. coconut
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Mineral and Salts
Minerals form important components of organic and inorganic molecules.
The minerals, which are essential for growth and development form essential
elements required in large quantity.
Some are called major essential elements like calcium, phosphorus, nitrogen,
sodium, chlorine, magnesium and sulfur.
These are iron, manganese, molybdenum, copper, cobalt, zinc, fluorine, iodine
and selenium.
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END OF CHAPTER TWO
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