Defense University, College of health science

General Chemistry for first year students

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 The Role of Chemistry in health sciences

 Chemistry is important in nursing because it helps in administering medicine to

patients.

 Knowledge of chemistry allows lab tech to carry out various tests on patient samples

 Nurses must understand how particular medicines will react in body of patients.

 Chemistry gives health officers the knowledge about the adverse effects of

different substances on human beings

 It gives knowledge about normal chemical process within the living cells and

any change in it helps in the diagnosis of disease

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1.2 Measurement and Calculations

 Measurements provide the macroscopic information that is the basis of most of the

hypotheses, theories, and laws that describe the behavior of matter and energy in both

the macroscopic and microscopic domains of chemistry

 Every measurement provides three kinds of information:

the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number or quantity);

a standard of comparison for the measurement (a unit) and

reliability

 Measurements can be represented in either decimal or scientific notation

 Two systems of international units are used in measurements through out the

world.Metric system of units ( SI units) –MKS and British system of units - FPS
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 There are seven fundamental units used to measure basic properties.
Fundamental metric units and the properties they measure

Basic Property Metric Unit Symbol

Length meter (m)

Mass kilogram (kg)
Time second (s)
Temperature kelvin (K)
Electric current ampere (A)
Amount of substance mole (mol)
Luminous intensity candela (cd)

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Derived SI units

 All other measurement units are obtained from the

fundamental units – they are called derived units

 Examples of physical properties which use derived

units:

density –g/cm3 , kg/m3 , g/ml

volume _ m3 ,dm3 , cm3 , ml, l

pressure_ N/M2, mmHg, Pa, Atm

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 What is the density of lead if a cube of lead has an edge length of 2.00 cm and a mass of 90.7 g?

Solution : The density of a substance can be calculated by dividing its mass by its volume.

The volume of a cube is calculated by cubing the edge length.

Volume of lead cube=2.00 cm × 2.00 cm × 2.00 cm = 8.00 cm3

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Measurement and Uncertainty

 Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from uncertainty

exact numbers are used

 All other measurements are associated with uncertainty

inexact numbers

 No one can avoid errors in measurements

 Sources of errors : instrument , person and/or environment

 Errors can be minimized by stastical treatment of data

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Significant Figures in Measurement

 The numbers of measured quantities, unlike defined or directly counted

quantities, are not exact

 In measurements small scales like tenths, hundredths can not be read

exactly

 Every measurement has some uncertainty, which depends on the device

used and the user’s ability

 The last digit in any measurement indicates an error: 25. 23 ml, 14.472g

 All of the digits in a measurement, including the uncertain last digit, are

called significant figures or significant digits

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Significant Figures in Calculations
 Rules f or rounding off decimal numbers
if the no to be rounded is < 5, drop the no : round 2.673 g to 3 s.f. 2.67 g
if the no to be rounded is > 5, round up the no : round 4. 68 ml to 2 s.f.
(4. 7 ml)
if the no to be rounded is = 5, round up if the preceding no is odd no and
leave as it is for preceding even no : round 1.75 mg to 2 s.f. (1.8 mg)
round 2.45 mg to 2 s.f. ( 2.4 mg)
 Rules for addtion and subtracttion of measurements
the least no of decimal place is taken :
2.34 ml + 3.6 ml = 2.94 ml (2.9ml)
 Rules for multiplication and division of measurements
the least no of significant figure is considered :
5.67 x 4.3 = 24.51 (24)

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Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision are terms which are used to describe errors in

measurement

Accuracy : the agreement of different measurements to the the true value

or the accepted value.

True value or accepted value : is the value one would get if it were

possible to make the measurement with out errors.

Precision : is the closeness of the various measurements to each other

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1.3. State and Classification of Matter

State of Matter :

 Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass, and it is all around us

 The three states of matter commonly found on earth are solids, liquids, and gases

 A solid is rigid and possesses a definite shape.

 A liquid flows and takes the shape of its container

 A gas takes both the shape and volume of its container.

 The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter in it

 Weight refers to the force that gravity exerts on an object

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Classification of Matter

 Matter can be classified as pure substances and mixtures

 A substance : is specific form of matter possessing constant properties under normal

conditions. Example, water , sulfur, carbon dioxide, iron, gold

 Pure substances are further divided into elements and compounds

 An element is the smallest particle of a substance which can exist in a free state

example: zinc , lead, copper , oxygen, chlorine, sodium, aluminum

 A compound : is a substance which is made up of two or more elements combined

chemically in fixed ratio . Example : water , glucose, proteins , sulfuric acid , hydrogen

peroxide, ethanol, potassium permanganate

 Compounds can be broken down in to two or more substances by chemical changes

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 A mixture : is a substance formed by the combination of two or more substances physically in

varying proportions.

Example : milk, air, soil ,sea water, sodium chloride solution, glucose solution

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There are two types mixtures :

 Homogenous mixtures and hetrogenous mixtures

 A homogenous mixture is a mixture in which the components are

uniformly distributed through out . Components can not be seen by

naked eyes or with magnifying glass.

Example : sugar solution, air

 A hetrogenous mixture is a mixture in which the components are

not uniformly distributed through out . Components can be seen by

naked eyes or with magnifying glass. Example : water oil mixture,

salt and soil mixture, milk

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Properties of substances

 They are characteristics exhibited by substances at normal conditions

 Physical properties and chemical properties

 Physical properties : m.p., b.p, density, color, odor, state, solubility

 Chemical properties : reactivity to acid, base, water, air

 Intensive properties and extensive properties

 Extensive properties: depend on the amount of matter. Example, volume, mass

 Intensive properties : does not depend on the amount of matter. B.p.,density

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 A physical property is a characteristic of a substance that can be observed or

measured without changing the identity of the substance. Physical properties

include color, density, hardness, and melting and boiling points.

 A chemical property describes the ability of a substance to undergo a specific

chemical change. To identify a chemical property, we look for a chemical

change. A chemical change always produces one or more types of matter that

differ from the matter present before the change. The formation of rust is a

chemical change because rust is a different kind of matter than the iron, oxygen,

and water present before the rust formed.

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1.4 Methods of Separation of Mixtures

 The process of separating the constituent substances of a mixture by

physical methods, taking advantage of the differences in their physical
properties is called separation process.
 Commonly used separation methods are
 Separation using magnets: This method is used when one of the
components is magnetic.
Example: The mixture of iron filings and sulphur powder can be
separated by using magnet
 Evaporation: Evaporation is the process of vaporizing the solvent to
obtain the solute. Evaporation is used to separate a mixture containing a
non-volatile, soluble solid from its volatile, liquid solvent.
We can separate salt from a solution by evaporating the water from
the solution.
 Filtration: Filtration is a process by which insoluble solids can be
removed from a liquid by using a filter paper.
A filter paper is a special type of paper which has pores that are tiny
enough to let only liquids pass through it. If you pass a solution through
filter paper, any undissolved solid particles will get left behind on the
paper whereas the liquid will filter through.
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The liquid that passes through is called the filtrate and the undissolved
solid particles are called residue.
Example: A mixture of chalk powder and water can be separated by this
method.
 Centrifugation: If the solid particles are very small and pass through
a filter paper, then centrifugation process is used for the separation of
insoluble solid particles from a solid-liquid mixture.
Principle involved in centrifugation: The principle is that when
the liquid is spun rapidly, the denser particles are forced to the bottom
and the lighter particles stay at the top.
Example: Centrifugation is used for blood and urine testing in
diagnostic laboratories, in dairies to separate butter from cream, and
in washing machines.
 Separating funnel: When two liquids do not mix, they form two
separate layers and are known as immiscible liquids. These two liquids
can be separated by using a separating funnel.

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 Chromatography: Chromatography is a method used
to separate mixture that comprises solutes that dissolve in the
same solvent.This method gets its name from the Greek word for
colour —Kroma, as it was first used for separating colours.
Principle: Chromatography is based on differential affinities of
compounds towards two phases, i.e stationary and mobile phase.
The fraction with greater affinity towards stationary phase travels
shorter distance while the fraction with less affinity towards stationary
phase travels longer distance.
Chromatography is used for separating colors in a dye, pigments from
natural colors and drugs from blood.
Based on nature of stationary and mobile phases chromatography is
classified into following types

• Paper chromatography
• Column chromatography
• Thin layer chromatography
• Gas chromatography

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Paper chromatography: In paper chromatography the stationary phase is paper
and the mobile phase is any suitable liquid.

Seperation of components of ink:

• First take a thin, long strip of filter paper. Use a pencil to draw a line on it,
about 3 cm above the lower edge. Then, put a small drop of black ink.
• On the filter paper in the centre of the line and allow it to dry.
• Finally, lower the filter paper into a jar containing water so that the drop of ink
on the paper is just above the water level. Don’t disturb the jar.
• After some time you will observe different coloured spots on the paper.

The ink has water as the solvent and the dye is soluble in it. As the water rises, it
takes the particles of dye along with it. Since a dye is made of two or more colours,
the colour which is the most soluble rises faster and higher. This is why there are
differently coloured spots on the paper

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Distillation: This method is used for the separation of a mixture containing two
miscible liquids that boil without decomposing and have a large difference between
their boiling points.
Process of conversion of a liquid into vapour by boiling, and then recondensing the
vapour into liquid is called distillation.

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 Fractional distillation method: In case the difference in the boiling points of the
liquids is less than 25K temperature, we use the fractional distillation method.
The apparatus is almost the same as used in distillation. The only difference is that a
fractioning column is fitted in between the distillation flask and the condenser. A simple
fractioning column is made up of a tube packed with glass beads. The beads provide the
surface for the vapours to cool and condense again and again. The fractioning columns
obstruct the smooth upward flow of vapours.

Example: A mixture of n-hexane and n-heptane can be separated through the process
of fractional distillation.
Put the mixture into a distillation flask. Heat the mixture. The vapours of, n-hexane has a
lower boiling point pass through and get condensed in the condenser. n-heptane, which
has a higher boiling point, condenses and flows back into the distillation flask.

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The gases in the air are separated from one another by the fractional distillation of liquid
air.
Air is made up of different gases like nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide. These gases
are separated from one another by the fractional distillation of liquid air.

Steps involved are,

Air is compressed in the compressor and cooled in the refrigeration unit. Thus, the air
gets liquefied.
The liquid air is passed through a filter to remove impurities and then fed into a tall
fractional distillation column.
On warming, liquid nitrogen distils first because it has the lowest boiling point of -196 0C.
Liquid argon has a slightly higher boiling point of -186 0C, so it distils next. Liquid
oxygen has the highest boiling point of -1830C, it left behind.

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 Crystallisation: Crystallisation is a separation and
purification method which involves the precipitating of
solid crystals from its saturated solution on cooling.
In this process the impure sample is dissolved in
minimum amount of suitable solvent. The formed
solution is heated to get a saturated solution. On
cooling, this saturated solution produce pure crystals of
the sample.

Crystallisation is used for: Purification of salt that we

get from sea water and separation of crystals of alum from
impure samples.

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