SCATTERING AND

CHEMICAL PROCESSING
PART 2
Scattered Radiation

Primary radiation
 Photons which passes
through matter without
any interaction

Scattered radiation
 Photons affected by
interaction with matter
Three major interaction mechanisms are:
• Photoelectric effect .
• Compton scattering .
• Pair production.
Photoelectric Effect
• Photon impacts on one shell electron(Ground
state)
• All Photon energy is transferred to electron.
• Photon is absorbed (stops existing).
• when the photon energy is less than 600 keV or
0.6 MeV
Compton Scattering
• From 600 keV to approximately 6 MeV Compton
scattering predominates.
Pair Production
• a high energy photon progress near to atom nucleus
• Pair production may occurs only above a threshold
energy of 1.02 MeV
• Under influence of nucleus energetic field it converts to
an electron(-1e0 )and positron+1e0 (pair)
MINIMISE THE EFFECT OF RADIATION
1. TIME
2. DISTANCE
3. SHIELDING

Distance
Inverse Square Law
Half value Layer (HVL)
Tenth value Layer (TVL)
• The amount of shielding required to reduce the incident radiation
levels by 1/10 th is called Tenth value Layer (TVL)
• Backscatter Control
• A lead plate (~2 mm) will be placed behind the cassette to protect
film from Backscatter
• A lead letter B is attached to the back of the film cassette during
exposure.
Backscatter Control
 Backscatter presence is indicated by light image
of ‘B’ (not acceptable).
 A dark image of ‘B’ does not indicate
backscatter!!!

     
Radiographic Film

Radiographic film is similar to photographic…

Emulsion contains AgBr grains
 Optical Density
Optical density = Degree of Darkening the film
Characteristic Curve
Characteristic curve – the relationship between optical density and
exposure.
Graininess

Fine grain film Coarse grain film

Film Speed
• The coarse grain is faster as it needs less exposure time to reach
required optical density.
• The film factor cF serves to compare film speeds
Film Fog
• Film Fog may be caused by:
• Opacity of the film base
• Incorrect storage (influence of heat, pressure, or unwanted exposure etc.
• Is reduces the contrast
• Shall be monitored (maximum acceptable for is usually 0.3D)
Film Latitude
• Ability of a radiographic technique to display a wide range of material
thickness at an acceptable film density.
• The Latitude is opposite to the Contrast
Intensifying Screens
• The following types of the screens are in use:
• Metallic foil intensifying screens.
• Fluorescent (salt) screens.
• Fluoro-metallic screens.
Metallic Foil Intensifying Screens
• Metallic screens usually contain Lead (Pb).
• Their use has the following effects:
• Exposure time is reduced (~ 2x or 3x) (therefore are called intensifying).
• Scatter influence is reduced.
• Unsharpness is reduced.
Fluorescent (Salt) Screens
• Fluorescent screens contains Calcium Tungstate (CaWO4) which is a
good scintillator.
• Their use has the following effects:
• Dramatic intensifying effect (up to 500 x)
• Significant increase of inherent unsharpness.
• Negligible filtering effect
In order to boost the filtering effect the salt screen must be combined
with metallic layer (Fluoro-metallic screens)
 Film Processing
Processing sequence
1) Development
2) Stop bath
3) Fixing
4) Washing
5) Drying
• Until film is processed, any additional exposure
must be avoided.
• Processing is carried out in the dark room
Film Processing
Developing
• Developer is alkali solution
• Standard temperature 20 °C (manual process)
• Standard processing time 5 minutes
• Ag+ + 1e- » Ag (Black metallic silver)
Film Processing
Stop bath
• Water or solution of acetic acid (~ 1:35)
• Standard temperature – same as developer
• Standard processing time – depends on agent ( 5 to
30 sec)
Film Processing
Fixing
• Fixer is an acidic solution
• Chemical- sodium thiosulphate (hypo)
• Standard temperature – same as developer
• Standard processing time 2x clearing time

• Fixer has 2 functions

• Fixing
• Hardening
 Film Processing
Fixing
• Fixing – dissolve all unexposed AgBr
grains from gelatine (will make it
transparent)
• Hardening – will harden gelatine (fix
silver in place and allow safe
handling).
• After Fixing
• Film is transparent
• Emulsion is hard, safe to be handled
• Emulsion contains thiosulphate
 Film Processing
Washing
• Water
• Standard temperature – same as developer
• Standard processing time – 10 to 30 minutes
(manual process)
• Wetting agent may be used at the end of washing
(avoid water marking)
• Washing will:
• Wash out thiosulphate from emulsion and
secure durability of radiograph
 Film Processing
Drying
• At room temperature or with hot air
• Dust free environment required
• Drying time depends on air temperature and
humidity, circulation and if wetting agent was used.