Chapter 11: Physical, Cognitive, and

Socioemotional Development in Late

Adulthood
 Characterize longevity and discuss the biological theories of aging
 Describe how a person’s brain and body change in late adulthood
 Identify health problems in older adults and describe how they can be
treated
 Describe the cognitive functioning of older adults
 Discuss aging and adaption to work and retirement
 Describe mental health problems, religion and spirituality in older adults
 Discuss four theories of socioemotional development and aging
 Describe links between personality and mortality, and identify changes in
the self and society in late adulthood
 Explain how to age successfully
Physical Development in Late Adulthood
 Life Expectancy and Life Span

 Life Span: the maximum number of years an individual can

live; has remained between 120–125 years

 Life Expectancy: the number of years that the average person

born in a particular year will probably live
 Has increased an average of 30 years since 1900

 Average life expectancy today is 77.6 years

 Life Expectancy and Life Span

 Differences in Life Expectancy

 Japan has highest life expectancy (82 years)

 Differences in life expectancy across countries are due to

factors such as health conditions and medical care

 Ethnic Differences
 Life expectancy for African Americans is 7 years lower than that of
non-Latino Whites

 Female life expectancy 80.7 years, males 75.4 years

 Life Expectancy and Life Span

 Centenarians
 Increasing by approximately 7% each year

 Explanations:
 Diet
 Low-stress lifestyle
 Caring community
 Activity
 Spirituality
 The Young-Old, the Old-Old, and the Oldest-Old

 Some developmentalists divide late adulthood:

 Young-old are aged 65 to 74
 Old-old are aged 75 or more
 Oldest-old are aged 85 or more

 Important to consider functional age, the person’s actual ability

to function, rather than age
 The Aging Brain

 The Shrinking, Slowing Brain

 On average, the brain loses 5% to 10% of its weight between the ages
of 20 and 90 years; brain volume also decreases

 May result from a decrease in dendrites, damage to myelin sheath, or

the death of brain cells

 A general slowing of function in the brain and spinal cord begins in

middle adulthood and accelerates in late adulthood affecting physical
coordination and intellectual performance

 Aging has been linked to a reduction in the production of certain

neurotransmitters
 The Aging Brain

 The Adapting Brain

 As the brain ages, it adapts in several ways:

 Neurogenesis: the generation of new brain cells

 Dendritic growth can occur in human adults

 Older brains rewire to compensate for losses

 Hemispheric lateralization can decrease; may improve cognitive

functioning
The Adapting Brain
 The Immune System

 The immune system declines in functioning with age

 Extended duration of stress; diminished restorative processes

 Malnutrition involving low levels of protein

 Exercise improves the immune system, and influenza

vaccination is very important for older adults
 Physical Appearance and Movement

 Wrinkles and age spots are the most noticeable changes

 People get shorter with aging due to bone loss in their

vertebrae

 Weight typically drops after we reach age 60; likely because

we lose muscle

 Adequate mobility is an important aspect of maintaining an

independent and active lifestyle in late adulthood
Physical Appearance and Movement
Physical Appearance and Movement
 Sensory Development

 Vision
 Decline in vision becomes more pronounced

 Adaptation to dark and driving at night becomes especially

difficult

 Color vision and depth perception also decline

 Sensory Development

 Diseases of the Eye

 Cataracts: a thickening of the lens of the eye that causes vision to
become cloudy, opaque, and distorted

 Glaucoma: damage to the optic nerve because of the pressure

created by a buildup of fluid in the eye

 Macular Degeneration: deterioration of the macula of the retina,

which corresponds to the focal center of the visual field
 Sensory Development

 Hearing:
 Hearing impairments are typical in late adulthood
 Hearing aids and cochlear implants can minimize the problems
linked to hearing loss

 Smell and Taste:

 Smell and taste losses typically begin about age 60

 Touch and Pain:

 Slight decline in touch sensitivity and sensitivity to pain with age
 The Circulatory System and Lungs

 Cardiovascular disorders increase in late adulthood

 High blood pressure can be linked with illness, obesity,

anxiety, stiffening of blood vessels, or lack of exercise and
should be treated

 Lung capacity drops 40% between the ages of 20 and 80, even
without disease, but can be improved with diaphragm-
strengthening exercises
 Sexuality

 Orgasm becomes less frequent in males with age

 Many older adults are sexually active as long as they are

healthy

 Various therapies have been effective for older adults who

report sexual difficulties
Sexuality
 Health Problems

 Probability of having some disease or illness increases with

age

 Arthritis is the most common followed by hypertension

Health Problems
Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
 Multidimensionality and Multidirectionality

 Cognitive mechanics and Cognitive Pragmatics: the “hardware” of

the mind and the neurophysiological architecture of the brain
 Tends to decline with age

 Cognitive pragmatics: culture-based “software” programs of the

mind
 Reading, writing, and educational qualifications
 Professional skills and language comprehension
 Knowledge of self and life skills
 May improve with age
 Multidimensionality and Multidirectionality

 Speed of Processing:
 Often due to a decline in brain and CNS functioning

 Attention:
 Selective attention
 Older adults are generally less adept at this

 Divided Attention

 Sustained Attention
 Multidimensionality and Multidirectionality

 Memory:
 Memory changes during aging, but not all memory changes in the
same way

 Episodic memory: younger adults have better episodic memory

 Semantic memory: does not decline as drastically as episodic

memory
 Exception: tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
 Multidimensionality and Multidirectionality
 Decision Making: preserved rather well in older adults

 Wisdom: expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that

permits excellent judgment about important matters
 High levels of wisdom are rare

 Late adolescence to early adulthood is the main age window for

wisdom to emerge

 Factors other than age are critical for wisdom to develop to a high
level

 Personality-related factors are better predictors of wisdom than

cognitive factors
 Adjustment to Retirement

 Older adults who adjust best to retirement are:

 Healthy

 Active and have an adequate income

 Are better educated

 Have extended social networks and family

 Were satisfied with their lives before retiring

 Flexibility and planning are key factors in whether individuals adjust

well to retirement
 Depression

 Major depression: mood disorder in which the individual is deeply

unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored
 Less common among older adults than younger adults

 Common predictors:
 Earlier depressive symptoms
 Poor health or disability
 Loss events
 Low social support

 25% of individuals who commit suicide in the U.S. are 65 years of

age or older
 Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions

 Dementia: any neurological disorder in which the primary

symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning
 20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementia

 Alzheimer Disease: a common form of dementia that is

characterized by a gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning,
language, and eventually, physical function
 Divided into early-onset (younger than 65) or late-onset (later than
65)
 Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions

 Alzheimer Disease (continued):

 Alzheimer involves a deficiency in the brain messenger chemical
acetylcholine

 Deterioration of the brain

 Formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles

 Apolipoprotein E could play a role in as many as 1/3 of the cases

of Alzheimer Disease
Dementia, Alzheimer Disease, and Other Afflictions
 Older adults are spiritual leaders in many societies
around the world

 Older adults who derived a sense of meaning in life

from religion had higher levels of life satisfaction, self-
esteem, and optimism

 Religion can provide some important psychological

needs in older adults
Socioemotional Development in Late
Adulthood
  Erikson’s theory:
 Integrity vs. despair: Involves reflecting on the past and
either piecing together a positive review or concluding that
one’s life has not been well spent
 Life review - Looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating
them, and interpreting/reinterpreting them

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  Regrets:
 Education, careers, marriages, finance/money, family conflict
and children’s problems, loss and grief, and health
 Making downward social comparisons
 Resolving regrets following the death of a loved one
 Reminiscence therapy - Discussing past activities and
experiences with another individual or group

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distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.
  Older adults in society
 Stereotyping older adults
 Ageism – Prejudice/discrimination against others because of their
age
 Policy Issues in an aging society
 Status of the economy
 Health care
 Eldercare
 Generational inequity
 Income
 Living arrangements
 Technology

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 About 80% of older adults have living children, many
of whom are middle-aged
 Adult daughters are more likely to be involved in the
lives of aging parents
 Adult children often coordinate and monitor services
for aging disabled parents

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  In late adulthood, new friendships are less likely to be
forged and close friends are chosen over new friends
 Friendships are more important than family in
predicting mental health
 Individuals with close ties to friends were less likely to
die across a seven-year age span

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  Older adults who had persistently low or declining
feelings of usefulness to others had an increased risk of
earlier death
 Volunteering is associated with a number of positive
outcomes
 Constructive activities
 Productive roles
 Social integration
 Enhanced meaningfulness

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  Three factors are important in living the “good life” as
an older adult:
 Health
 Security
 Kinship/Support

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  Seven factors are likely to predict high status for older
adults in a culture:
 Have valuable knowledge
 Control key family/community resources
 Engage in useful/valued functions as long as possible
 Role continuity throughout the life span
 Age-related role changes that give greater responsibility,
authority, and advisory capacity
 Extended family
 Respect for older adults

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 Many abilities can be maintained and/or improved in
older adults due to:
 Proper diet
 Active lifestyle
 Mental stimulation and flexibility
 Positive coping skills
 Good social relationships and support
 Absence of disease

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End of Chapter
11