How does this happen??

It all begins with a fertilized egg

• Once the sperm fertilizes
the egg, that fertilized egg
(zygote) goes through cell
division over and over.
• Cell division through
mitosis gives rise to many
identical cells.
• Differentiation: a process
that creates special
structures and functions.
– Specialized cells become
tissues  organs  organ
systems.
It all begins with a fertilized egg
 Cell Differentiation
• Stem cells = undifferentiated cells that can become
differentiated into one or more types of specialized
cells.
– Two Types:
• Embryonic
stem cells: cells
that have never
differentiated
and can become
any type

• Adult stem cells: cells found in

adult bone marrow that are
partially differentiated and can
only become certain types
 Cell
Differentiation
• Organism: one individual member of a
species
• Organ System: set of organs working
together for a common function (Ex.
digestive system)
• Organ: set of tissues working together for
a common function (Ex. stomach)
• Tissue: group of cells working together for
a common function (Ex. muscle tissue)
• Cell: most basic unit of life that has all the
characteristics of life. (Ex. muscle cell)
 Cell Cycle
• Cell Cycle = a repeated pattern of growth, DNA
duplication, and cell division that occurs in eukaryotic
cells.
• 2 purposes = GROWTH
and REPAIR
• The Cell Cycle consists
of 3 main phases:
– Interphase = cell growth
– Mitosis = cell division
– Cytokinesis = cytoplasm
separation
– Starts at the end of mitosis
 Cell Cycle
Interphase
• Interphase = the growth phase of the
cell cycle.
• 3 parts:
– G1 phase = Gap 1 phase = cell grows
and makes proteins
– S phase = Synthesis phase = DNA
replication occurs, doubling the number of
chromosomes
– G2 phase = Gap 2 phase = more cell
growth and protein synthesis
**At the end of interphase the cell has 2 full sets of
chromosomes!**
 DNA vocabulary
• Chromosome: one long continuous thread of DNA that
consists of thousands of genes and regulatory information.
– Gene = a section of DNA with instructions for making a protein
– Each human body cell has all of your DNA organized into 46
chromosomes.
• In normal body cells, chromosomes always occur in pairs of
homologous chromosomes.
Your DNA,
Half your organized in 46
chromosomes chromosomes
came from your and thousands
biological mother
of genes,
and half from your
biological father. provides the
This is why they instructions for
often “occur in making proteins,
pairs.” which run your
body.
 DNA vocabulary
• Chromatid – one half
of a duplicated
chromosome.
– Sister Chromatids –
two identical
chromatids

• Centromere – region
of the condensed
chromosomes that
looks pinched.

• Telomere – ends of
the DNA molecule.
 Cell Cycle
A closer look at S phase
Unduplicated
homologous chromosomes Duplicated homologous chromosomes

DNA Replication

During S phase of
Interphase

**Because of S phase, at the end

of interphase the cell has 2 full Sister chromatids Sister chromatids
sets of chromosomes!**
 Cell Cycle
MITOSIS
• Mitosis = the division phase of the cell cycle.
- 1 cell becomes 2 identical daughter cells
 Cell Cycle
MITOSIS

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis

begins
 Cell Cycle
Prophase
• Chromosomes
condense and are
visible as sister
chromatids (in X’s).

• Nuclear membrane
disappears.

• Spindle fibers form

out of centrioles.
 Cell Cycle
Metaphase
• Spindle fibers connect
to the centromeres.

• Chromosomes line up
in middle of the cell.
 Cell Cycle
Anaphase
• Sister chromatids
separate, pulling away
from each other and
becoming individual
chromosomes.

• Chromatids move to
opposite ends of the
cell.
 Cell Cycle
Telophase
• Chromosomes
decondense and start to
look like chromatin again
(threadlike instead of rodlike)

• Nuclear membrane re-

forms around
chromosomes at each
pole.
• Spindle fibers break down.
• Cytokinesis begins.
 Cell Cycle
Cytokinesis
• The division of the cytoplasm
into 2 individual cells.
• In plant cells – cell plate
forms midway between
divided nuclei and gradually
develops into a membrane.
End result = 2 identical
• In animal cells - forms a body cells
cleavage furrow that
pinches the cell into 2 equal
parts.
How often do cells divide?
• Every cell divides at a different rate based on its need.
• Examples:
– Internal lining of intestines = 5 days
– Skin cells = every 2 weeks
– Red blood cells = 4 months
– Liver cells = 1 year

Why do body cells divide?

• **Growth and repair**
– Cells can’t just get bigger to grow either – they have to
stay small to maintain a high surface area to volume ratio.
• This is most efficient energy-wise and allows substances to move
in and out of the cell more easily.
How do cells know when to divide and when not to?

What happens if this regulation fails?

Regulation of the Cell Cycle
• Cell cycle is controlled by a chemical control
system that starts & stops events in the cell
cycle.
– Proteins play a key role!

• Regulation is:
– External – signals that come
from outside of the cell; Ex.
Hormone, nutrients, etc.
– Internal – signals that come
from the cell’s own nucleus; Ex.
DNA inside of the cell
 Checkpoints
• Checkpoint – critical point where “stop” &
“go” signals can regulate the cycle.

G2
G1

Key:
Note: Cell
G1 = Gap 1 of S division is mostly
interphase
S = S phase of in the “off”
interphase position in
G0 animal cells if
G2 = Gap 2 of
(Resting there is no
interphase
State) stimulus present.
M = Mitosis
 Apoptosis
• Apoptosis = programmed cell death
– Internal/external signals activate genes that
produce self-destructive enzymes.
– Ex: Web fingers & toes during development
 Cancer
• Cancer = uncontrolled cell division
– When cell cycle regulation
breaks down.
– Cancer cells divide much
more often than healthy cells
do  tumors form
• Tumors = clumps of cells that divide uncontrollably
 Tumors
• Benign – abnormal cells
that typically remain
clustered together
– It may be harmless & easily
removed

• Malignant – cancer cells

that break away from the
tumor and move to other
parts of the body  more
tumors
– Metastasize = spreading of
disease from one organ to
others
 Causes
• Many things can cause cancer, such as:
– Biological factors
• Ex. Age, inherited genetic mutations, skin type, etc.
– Lifestyle choices
• Ex. Diet, physical activity, exposure to UV radiation, etc.
– Viruses and other infections
• Ex. HPV can cause cervical cancer
– Exposure to carcinogens = cancer causing agents;
chemicals that cause cancer by mutating DNA
• Ex. Tobacco smoke, asbestos, etc.