Unit-III

PHASE CHANGE HEAT TRANSFER

&
HEAT EXCHANGERS
PHASE CHANGE OF WATER TO VAPOUR:

at
he
le
ib
A- Saturated

ns
Se
Liquid
A B- Saturated
at B vapour
Temperature e
(T) l eh Latent
Vapour
sib heat
n
Se Region
Liquid Liquid
Region +Vapour

Enthalpy (h)
Boiling:
Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process
Boiling occurs at the solid–liquid interface
•The boiling processes in practice do not occur under equilibrium conditions,

•Normally the bubbles are not in thermodynamic equilibrium with the surrounding
liquid.

(i.e.) Temperature and pressure of the vapor in a bubble are usually different than those of
the liquid.

Boiling is classified as pool boiling or flow boiling, depending on the presence

of bulk fluid motion

Pool boiling Flow boiling

Pool Boiling with Liquid-Vapour Interface
Pool boiling curves for water
Flow Regimes for Flow Boiling Inside a Tube:
Procedure for solving the problems on Pool boiling:

Check the given fluid

Saturation temperature of the fluid

Compare with the surface temperature

Find the ∆T (Diff . bt. Surface and saturation temp)

∆T<50 ∆T>50

Nucleate boiling Film boiling

Take the heat transfer equation Take the heat transfer equation
from datebook from pg.no.142 from datebook from pg.no.142
1. Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure in a polished copper pan by means of an
electric heater. The diameter of the pan is 0.38 m and is kept at 115° C. Calculate the
following:
1. Power required to boil the water
2. Rate of evaporation
3. Critical heat flux.
Given :
Fluid : Water
Diameter, d = 0.38 m
Surface temperature, Tw = 115° C.
Pressure :Atmospheric pressure

To find:
1. Power required to boil the water
2. Rate of evaporation
3. Critical heat flux.

Solution:
The pan is kept inside the water. So the given
problem is pool boiling.

Saturation temp.of water at atmospheric

pressure tsat = 1000C
Properties of water at 1000 C. ∆T = Excess temperature = Tw - Tsat
[From HMT data book page No.21, = 115 - 100
Sixth edition] = 15° C

Density, ρI = 961 kg/rn3 ∆ T = 15° C < 50° C.

Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.293 x 10-6 m2/s So this is Nucleate pool boiling process
Prandtl Number, Pr = 1.740
Specific heat, Cpl = 4216 J/kg K
1.Power required to boil the water
Dynamic viscosity, μl= ρI x v
= 961 x 0.293 x 10-6
= 281.57 x 10-6 Ns/m2 For Nucleate pool boiling

[From HMT data book page No.142(Sixth

From Steam Table [R.S. Khurmi Steam table edition)]
page No.4] 3.0
  l   v   c1T 
0.5
At 1000 C Q
Heatflux  l .h fg  g  
Enthalpy of evaporation, hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg A     Csf h fg Pr n 
hfg = 2256.9 x 103
J/kg where σ = surface tension for liquid vapour
interface
Specific volume of vapour, vg = 1.673 m3/kg At 1000 C.
σ = 0.0588 N/m
[From HMT data book page No.144]
Density of vapour, ρv = 1/(vg)
= 1/1.673
n = 1 for water = 4.83 x 105 x (π/4)x d2
[From HMT data book. page No. 142]
= 4.83 x 105 x (π/4)x 0.382
For water - copper
Csf = surface fluid constant = 0.013
Q = 54.7 x 103 W
[From HMT data book. page No. 143]
Power =Q= 54.7 x 103 W

Substitute
2. Rate of evaporation:
µl, hfg, ρI ,ρv , σ,Cpl, ∆T, Csf hfg, n and Pr values
in Equation We know that, .
0.5 Heat transferred, Q  m h fg
Q  (961  0.597) 
 281.57  106  2256.9  103 9.81
A  0.0588  . Q
3.0 m
 4216  15  h fg
 0.013  2256.9  103  (1.74)1 
 
. 54.7  103
m
2256.9  103
Heat flux, Q/A = 4.83 x 105 W/m2
.
Heat transfer, Q = 4.83 x 105 x A m  0.024 kg / s
3. Critical heat flux

For Nucleate pool boiling, critical heat flux,

0.25
Q    
 0.18.h fg   v   g  l 2 v 
A  v 

[From HMT data book page No. 142)

0.25
Q  (961  0.597) 
 0.18  2256.9  103  0.597 0.0588  9.81
A  0.597 2 

Q
 15.2  106 W / m 2
A

Result:
Power =Q= 54.7 x 103 W
.
Rate of evaporation m  0.024 kg/s
Q
Critical heat flux  15.2  106 W/m 2
A
2.Water is, boiled at the rate of 24 kg/hr in a polished copper pan, 300mm in diameter,
at atmospheric pressure. Assuming nucleate boiling conditions, calculate the
temperature of the bottom surface of the pan.
Properties of water at 1000 C.
[From HMT data book page No.21,
Given: Sixth edition]
Fluid : Water .
Mass flow rate, m = 24 kg/h Density, ρI = 961 kg/rn3
= 24/3600 Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.293 x 10-6 m2/s
= 6.6 x 10-3 kg/s Prandtl Number, Pr = 1.740
Diameter, d = 300mm= 0.3m Specific heat, Cpl = 4216 J/kg K
Dynamic viscosity, μl= ρI x v
To find :
Surface Temperature, Tw = 961 x 0.293 x 10-6
= 281.57 x 10-6 Ns/m2
From Steam Table [R.S. Khurmi Steam table
page No.4]
At 1000 C
Enthalpy of evaporation, hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg
hfg = 2256.9 x 103
J/kg
Specific volume of vapour, vg = 1.673 m3/kg
Density of vapour, ρv = 1/(vg)
= 1/1.673
 We know that
For Nucleate pool boiling .
Q  m h fg
.
[From HMT data book page No.142(Sixth
Q m h fg
edition)] 
A A
3.0
  l   v   c1T 
0.5
Q
Heatflux  l .h fg  g  
. .
A     Csf h fg Pr n  Q m h fg m h fg
 
A A  2
where σ = surface tension for liquid vapour d
4
interface
At 1000 C. Q 6.6  10 3  2256.9  10 9

σ = 0.0588 N/m A 
[From HMT data book page No.144] (0.3) 2
4

Q
n = 1 for water  210  103W / m 2
A
[From HMT data book. page No. 142]

For water - copper

Csf = surface fluid constant = 0.013
[From HMT data book. page No. 143]
Substitute
µl, hfg, ρI ,ρv , σ,Cpl, Csf hfg, n , Pr and Q/A
values in Equation

0.5
6  (961  0.597) 
210  10  281.57  10  2256.9  10 9.81
3 3

 0.0588 
3.0
 4216  T 
 0.013  2256.9  103  (1.74)1 
 

∆T =11.350C

∆T= Tw-Tsat

11.35= Tw-100

Tw= 113.50C
3. A heating element cladded with metal is 8mm diameter and of emissivity is 0.92. The element
is horizontally immersed in a water bath. The surface temperature of the metal is 260°C under
steady state boiling conditions. Calculate the power dissipation per unit length of the heater

Given: Tw  Tsat
Film temperature Tf 
2
Diameter, D = 8 mm = 8 x 10-3 m
260  100
Emissivity, ε = 0.92 Tf 
2
Surface temperature, Tw =260°C
Tf  1800 C
To find :
Power dissipation Properties of water vapour at 180° C.
(Saturated Steam)
Solution: [From HMT data book page No. 39
(Sixth edition)}
We know that, saturation temperature of
water is 100° C. ρv= 5.16 kg/m3
(i.e.)Tsat = 100° C kv= 0.03268 W/m K
Cpy = 2709 J/kg K
Excess temperature, ∆T = Tw - Tsat μv = 15.10 x 10-6 Ns/m2
∆T = 260 - 100
∆T= 160°C >50°C
So, this is Film pool boiling
Properties of saturated water at 100° C.
[From HMT data book page No.21 (Sixth edition)}
ρl= 961 kg/m3

From steam table At 100° C.

[R.S Khurmi Steam table, page No.4}

hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg

hfg =2256.9 × 103 J/kg

In film pool boiling, heat is transferred due to

both convection and radiation.

Heat transfer co-efficient, h = hconv + 0.75 hrad

hconv  0.62
 
 kv2   v  (  l   v )  g  h fg  0.4C pv T  
0.25


  v D T 

[From HMT data book page No. 142}

 
 (32.68  10 3 ) 2  5.16  (961  5.16)  9.81 2256.9  10 3  0.42709  160  
hconv  0.62 
 0.25


 15.1 10 6  8  10 -3  160 
0.25
 4.1 106 
hconv  0.62  5 
1.93  10 
hconv  421.02 W/mK

 Tw4  Tsat4 
hrad   
T  T
 w sat 

[From HMT data book page No. 142]

8  (260  273) 4  (100  273) 4 

hrad  5.67 10  0.92   
 ( 260  273)  (100  273) 
[Stefan Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 x 10 -8 W/m2k4]

hrad  20 W/m 2 k
h = 421.02 + 0.75(20)

h= 436.02 W/m2K

Heat transferred, Q= h A (Tw - Tsat)

= h × π × D × L (Tw - Tsat)
= 436.02 × π × 8 x 10-3 × 1 × (260-100)
Q = 1753.34 W/m [L= 1m]

(or)

Power dissipation, P = 1753.34 W/m

Result :
Power dissipation, P = 1753.34 W/m.
Water at atmospheric pressure (saturation temperature = 100°C) is boiling on a brass surface
heated from below. If the surface is at 108°C, determine the heat flux and compare the same
with critical heat flux.
Result:
q= 0.746 × 106 W/m2
q critical= 1.262 × 106 W/m2
4.Water is boiling on a horizontal tube whose wall temperature is maintained at 15°C above
the saturation temperature of water. Calculate the nucleate boiling heat transfer co-efficient.
Assume the water to be at a pressure of 10 atm. And also find the change in value of heat
transfer co-efficient when
(a)The temperature difference is increased to 30° C at a pressure of 10 atm.
(b)The pressure is raised to 20 atm at ∆T = 15°C.

Given:
Wall temperature is maintained at 15°C
above the saturation
temperature.
Tw = 115° C. [ Tsat = 100° C;
Tw = 100 + 15 = 115°C]
P = 10 atm = 10.1325 bar
≈10bar
Case (i)
∆T = 30° C; P = 10 atm ≈ 10 bar
Case (ii)
p = 20 atm ≈ 20 bar; ∆T = 15° C
Solution:
w.k.t , for horizontal surface, heat transfer coefficient
h =5.56 (∆T) 3 [ Take Q/A ]
h = 5.56 (Tw - Tsat)3
= 5.56 (115 - 100)3
h = 18765 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient other than atmospheric
pressure
hp = h P0.4 [From HMT data book page No. 143)
= 18765 x [10]0.4
Heat transfer co-efficient,
hp = 47.13 x 103 W/m2K
Case (i) Case (ii)
P = 20 bar; ∆T = 15° C
p = 10 bar ; ∆T = 30° C
[From HMT data book page No.143} Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 5.56 (∆T)3
Heat transfer co-efficient, h = 5.56 (∆T)3 = 5.56 (15)3
= 5.56 (30)3 h= 18765 W/m2K
h = 150 × 103W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient other than
Heat transfer co-efficient other than atmospheric pressure
atmospheric pressure
hp = h p0.4
hp = h p0.4 = 18765 (20)0.4
= 150 × 103(10)0.4 hp = 62.19×103 W/m2K
hp = 377 × 103W/m2K

Result:

Nucleate boiling heat transfer co-efficient hp = 471.3 × 103 W/m2K

Case (i)
hp = 377 ×103 W/m2K

Case (ii)
h = 62.19 × 103 W/m2K
 5.A electric wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 200 mm long is laid horizontally and submerged in
water at atmospheric pressure. The wire has an applied voltage of 16 V and carries a current of
42 amperes. Determine heat flux and excess temperature. The following correlation for water
boiling all horizontal submerged surfaces holds good.
3/ 4
Q
 5.58 T  W / m 2 k
3
h  1.54 
 A

Given: Surface Area, A = π D L

Diameter, D = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10-3m ; = π x 1.5 x 10-3 x 0.2
Length, L = 200 mm = 0.2 m ; A = 9.42 x 10-4 m2
Voltage, V = 16 V; Current I = 42 amps;
Q 672  713.3 103 W / m 2
h = 1.54 (Q)3/4 = 5.58 (∆T)3 
A 9.42  10  4
3/ 4
To find: Q
 5.58 T  W / m 2 k
3
h  1.54 
 A
1. Heat flux, (Q/A)
2. Excess temperature(∆T) 
1.54 713.3  103 
3/ 4
 5.58 T 
3

T 3  6773.92 T  18.90 C

Solution:
We know that, heat transfer Result :
Q= V x I
= 16 x 42 1. Q/A= 713.3 x 103 W/m2
Q=672 W 2. ∆T = 18.9° C
6. It is desired to boil water at atmospheric pressure on a copper surface which is electrically
heated. Estimate the heat flux from the surface to the water, if the surface is maintained at 110° C
and also the peak heat flux.

Given: Specific heat, Cpl = 4216 J/kg K

Surface temperature, Tw = 110° C. Dynamic viscosity, μl= ρl x ν
= 961 x 0.293 x 10-6
To find: = 281.57 x 10-6 Ns/m2
From Steam Table {RS Khurmi Steam table, page
1. Heat flux, (Q/A) No.4}
2. Critical heat flux, (Q‘/A)
At 100°C
Solution: Enthalpy of evaporation, hfg= 2256.9 kJ/kg
We know that
hfg = 2256.9 x 103 J/kg
Specific volume of vapour, vg = 1.673 m3/kg
Saturation temperature of water is 100° C.
(i.e.) Tsat = 100° C
Density of vapour, ρv= 1/vg = 1/1.673
Properties of water at 100° C. = 0.597 kg/m3
{From HMT data book page No.2],(Sixth ∆T = Excess temperature = Tw - Tsat
edition)} = 110- 100
Density, ρv = 961 kg/m3 ∆T = 10°C
Kinematic viscosity, ν= 0.293 x 10-6m2/s ∆ T = 10°C < 50° C. So, this is Nucleate pool
boiling process.
For Nucleate pool boiling For Nucleate pool boiling
3.0 0.25
  l   v   c1T     
0.5
Q Q'
Heatflux  l .h fg  g    0.18.h fg   v   g  l 2 v 
A     Csf h fg Pr n  A  v 
[From HMT data bonk page No.142(Sixth edition)]
[From HMT data book page No. 142(Sixth edition)}
Where Q'
n = 1 for water  0.18  2256.9  103  0.597 
At 1000C A
0.25
σ= 0.0588 N/m [ From HMT data book page No.  (961  0.597) 
 0 . 0588  9 . 81 
0.597 2 
144}
For water - copper
Csf = surface fluid constant = 0.013 Q'
[From HMT data book page No. 143}  1.52  106 W / m 2
A

Substitute
µl, hfg, ρI ,ρv , σ,Cpl, Csf ,hfg, n , Pr and Q/A
values in above Equation 0 .5
Result :
Q  (961  0.597) 
 281.57 10 6  2256.9 103 9.81
A  0.0588  I. Heat flux = 142.83 x 103 W/m2
3 .0
 4216 10  2. Critical heat flux = 1.52 x 106 W/m2
 0.013  2256.9 103  (1.74)1 
 
Q
 142.83 103 W/m 2
A
 Condensation

The change of phase from vapour to liquid state is known as condensation.

Modes of condensation
There are two modes of condensation
1. Film wise condensation
2. Drop wise condensation.

Film wise condensation

The liquid condensate wets the solid surface, spreads out and forms a continuous film
over the entire surface is known as film wise condensation.
Film condensation occurs when a vapour free from impurities.

Drop wise condensation:

In drop wise condensation, the vapour condenses into small liquid droplets of various
sizes which fall down the surface in a random fashion.
Heat transfer rates in drop wise condensation may be as much as 10 times higher than in
film wise condensation.
Nusselt's Theory for film condensation:

The mathematical solution given by Nusselt is described over here.

The following assumption are made for derivation.

l. The plate is maintained at a uniform temperature T w ,which is less than the saturation
temperature Tsat of the vapour.

2. Fluid properties are constant.

3. The shear stress at the liquid vapour interface is negligible.

4. The heat transfer across the condensate layer is by pure conduction and the temperature
distribution is linear.

5. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases, air and non condensing
impurities.

6. The acceleration of fluid within the condensate layer is linear.

7. Dry saturated steam at a pressure of 3 bar, condenses on the surface of a vertical tube of height
1m. The tube surface temperature is kept at 110° C. Calculate the following
1. Thickness of the condensate film
2. Local heat transfer co-efficient at a distance of 0.25 m.
Assume Laminar flow
We know that,
Given : T T
Film temperature Tf  w sat

Pressure, p = 3 bar 2
Surface temperature, Tw = 110° C 110  133.5
Tf 
Distance, x = 0.25 m 2
Tf= 121.75° C
To find:
Properties of saturated water
1. Thickness of the condensate film
At 121.75° C≈120° C
2. Local heat transfer co-efficient at a distance
[From HMT data book page No. 21 (Sixth edition)}
of 0.25 m.
Density, ρI = 945 kg/m3
Solution : Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.247 x 10-6 m2/s
Properties of steam at 3 bar Thermal conductivity k =0.685 W/mK
From steam table, [R.S. Khurmi steam table, Dynamic viscosity, μl= ρI x v
page No.10) = 945 x 0.247 x 10-6
Tsat = 133.5 C
0
= 2.33x 10-4 Ns/m2
hfg = 2163.2 kJ/kg = 2163.2 x 10 J/kg
3
 0.25
 4  k xTsat  Tw 
Thickness  x   
 g  h fg  
2

[From HMT data book page No.148 (Sixth
edition)}

 4  2.33  10  0.685  0.25 133.5  110 

4 0.25

x   
 9 . 81  2163 . 2  10 3
 945 2


 x  1.18 104 m
k
Local heat transfer co  efficient h x 
δx

0.685
hx 
1.18 10-4

h x  5805.8 W / m 2 k
8. A vertical tube of 65mm outside diameter and 1.5 m long is exposed to steam at atmospheric
pressure. The outer surface of the tube is maintained at a temperature of 60°C by circulating cold
water through the tube. Calculate the
following:
1. The rate of heat transfer to the coolant.
2. The rate of condensation of steam.
We know that,
Given: Tw  Tsat
Diameter, D 65 mm = 0.065 m; Film temperature Tf 
Length, L =1.5 m 2
60  100
Surface temperature, Tw =60°C Tf 
2
To find: Tf= 80° C
1. The rate of heat transfer to the coolant (Q)
2. The rate of condensation of steam Properties of saturated water
Solution: At 80° C
We know, saturation temperature of water is [From HMT data book page No. 21 (Sixth edition)}
1000C. (i.e.) Tsat = 1000C Density ρI = 974 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.364 x 10-6 m2/s
Properties of steam at 100°C Thermal conductivity k =0.6687W/mK
[From RS.Khurmi steam table, page no. 4]
Dynamic viscosity, μl= ρI v
Enthalpy of evaporation, = 974× 0.364 × 10-6
hfg =2256.9 kJ/kg = 354.53 × 10-6Ns/m2
= 2256.9 x 103 J/kg
 2. The rate of condensation of steam
Assuming that the condensate film is laminar
We know that,
For laminar flow, vertical surface heat transfer Heat transfer, .
co-efficient Q  m h fg
0.25
 k 3  2 g h fg  . Q 57389
h  0.943  m 
 L Tsat  T 
w 
h fg 2256.9  103
[From HMT data book page No.148 (Sixth edition)} .
m  0.0254 kg/s
The factor 0.943 may be replaced by 1.13 for Let us check the assumption of laminar film
more accurate result as suggested by Me Adams condensation
0.25
 0.6687  974  9.81 2256.9  10 
3 2 3 We know that,
 1.13  Reynolds Number, .

 354.53  10 6
 1 .5  100  60   4m
Re 
P
h  4684 W/m 2 k P= πD = π x 0.065 = 0.204m
1. Heat transfer 4  0.0254
Re 
0.204  354.53  10 6
Q = h A ∆T
= h x πDL x (Tsat –Tw) Re  1406.3  1800
= 4684 x π x 0.065 x 1.5 x (100-60)
= 57389 W So our assumption (laminar flow) is correct
9. A vertical flat plate in the form of fin is 500 mm in height and is exposed to steam at
atmospheric pressure. If surface of the plate is maintained at 60 0 C, calculate the following
1. The film thickness at the trailing edge
2. Overall heat transfer co-efficient
3. Heat transfer rate
4. The condensate mass flow rate.
Assume laminar flow conditions and unit width of the plate.

Given: Properties of steam at 100° C

Height (or) Length, L = 500 mm = 0.5 m [From R.S.Khurmi steam table, page No.4}
Surface temperature, Tw = 60° C
hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg
To find : hfg = 2256.9 x 103 J/kg
1. The film thickness at the trailing edge
2. Overall heat transfer co-efficient (h)
We know that,
3. Heat transfer rate (Q)
Tw  Tsat
4. The condensate mass flow rate. Film temperature Tf 
2
60  100
Solution: Tf 
We know that, saturation temperature of 2
Tf= 80° C
water is 100° C
i.e., Tsat = 100° C
Properties of saturated water
 4  354.53  10 6  0.6687  0.5 100  60 
0.25
At 80° C x  
[From HMT data book page No. 21 (Sixth edition)} 9.81 2256.9  103  974 2 
 
Density ρI = 974 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.364 × 10-6 m2/s  x  1.73  10 4 m
Thermal conductivity k =0.6687 W/mK 2. Average heat transfer co-efficient, (h)
Dynamic viscosity, μl= ρI × v For vertical surface, Laminar flow
= 974 × 0.364 × 10-6
= 354.53 × 10-6Ns/m2 0.25
 k 3  2 g h fg 
h  0.943 
1. Film thickness (δx)  L Tsat  T 
w 
[From HMT data book page No.148 (Sixth edition)}
We know, For vertical plate
0.25 The factor 0.943 may be replaced by 1.13 for
 4  k xTsat  Tw  more accurate result as suggested by Me Adams
Thickness  x   
 g  h fg   2
 0.25
 0.66873  9742  9.81 2256.9  103 
 1.13 
[From HMT data book page No. 148  354.53  10  0.5  100  60 
6

(Sixth editions],
where h  6164.3 W / mk
x= L = 0.5 m
3.Heat transfer

Q = h A ∆T
= h × L × W × (Tsat –Tw)
= 6164.3 × 0.5 × 1 × (100-60)
= 123286 W

4. Condensate mass flow rate

We know that, .
Heat transfer, Q  m h fg

. Q 123286
m 
h fg 2256.9  103

.
m  0.054 kg/s

Result:
1. The film thickness at the trailing edge= 1.73 x 10-4 m
2. . Overall heat transfer co-efficient h = 6164.3 W/m 2K
3. Heat transfer rate Q = 123286 W
4. The condensate mass flow rate. = 0.054 kg/s
10. Steam at 0.080 bar is arranged to condense over a 50 cm square vertical plate. The surface
temperature is maintained at 20° C.
Calculate the following:
a. Film thickness at a distance of 25 cm from the top of the plate.
b. Local heat transfer co-efficient at a distance of 25 cm from the top of the plate.
c. Average heat transfer co-efficient
d. Total heat transfer
e. Total steam condensation rate
f. What would be the heat transfer co-efficient if the plate is inclined at 30° with horizontal plane

Given: Solution:
Pressure, p = 0.080 bar Properties of steam at 0.080 bar
Area, A = 50 cm x 50 cm [From R.S.Khurmi steam table, page No.7]
= 0.50 x 0.50
= 0.25m2 Tsat = 41.53° C
Surface temperature, Tw = 20° C hfg = 2403.2 kJ/kg
Distance, x = 25 cm= 0.25 m = 2403.2×103 J/kg

We know that,
Tw  Tsat
Film temperature Tf 
2
20  41.53
Tf 
Tf  30.76 0C 2
Properties of saturated water at 30.76°C≈30° C b) Local heat transfer co-efficient (hx)
[From HMT data book 'page No.21} [Assuming Laminar flow]
ρ = 997 kg/m3
ν = 0.83 x 10-6 m2/s k 0.612
hx  
k = 0.612 W/mK x 1.46  10  4
µ= ρ x ν = 997 x 0.83 x 10-6
= 827.51 x 10-6 Ns/m2 hx  4191 W/mK

(a)Film thickness c) Average heat transfer co-efficient (h)

[Assuming Laminar flow]
We know, For vertical surfaces 0.25
 k 3  2 g h fg 
[From HMT data book page No.148] h  0.943 
 L Tsat  T 
w 
0.25
 4  k xTsat  Tw  The factor 0.943 may be replaced by 1.13 for
Thickness  x   
g  h   2 more accurate result as suggested by Me
 fg 
Adams
0.25
 k 3  2 g h fg 
 4  827.51  0.612  0.2541.53  20 
0.25 h  1.13 
   L Tsat  T 
w  
 9.81  2403.2  997 2 
where L = 50 cm = 0.5 m
 x  1.46  10 4 m 0.25
 0.6123  997 2  9.81 2403.2  103 
h  1.13 6 
 827. 51  10  0 .5  ( 41. 53  20) 
h = 5599.6 W/m2K
d) Heat transfer (Q) Let us check the assumption of laminar film
We know that, condensation
.
Q=hA(Tsat – Tw) 4m
We know that, Re 
=5599.6×0.25(41.53 – 20) W
=30139.8 W where
W = width of the plate = 50 cm= 0.50 m
(e) Total steam condensation rate
. 4  0.0125
Q  m h fg Re 
0.5  827.51  10 6
. Q 30139.8
m 
h fg 2403.2  103 Re  120.8
. Re < 1800. So our assumption is correct
m  0.0125 kg / s
Result:
f) If the plate is inclined at θ with horizontal
hinclined = hvertical x (sin θ )1/4  x  1.46  10 4 m
hx  4191 W/m 2 K
hinclined = hvertical x (sin 30 )1/4
h  5999.6 W/m 2 K
= 5599.6 x (1/2)1/4 Q  30139.8 W
.
m  0.0125 kg / s
hinclined = 4708.6 W/m2K
hinclined = 4708.6 W/m2K
Problems on Laminar flow, Horizontal surface
11. A horizontal tube of outer diameter 2.2 cm is exposed to dry steam at 100° C. The pipe
surface is maintained at 62° C by circulating water through it. Calculate the rate of formation of
condensate per metre length of the pipe.
Given: 62  100
Tf 
Diameter, D = 2.2 cm = 2.2 x 10-2 m 2
Dry steam temperature, Tsat = 100°C Tf  810 C  80 0 C
Surface temperature, Tw = 62° C
Properties of saturated water at 80° C
To find : [From HMT data book page No.21]
ρ = 974 kg/m3
Rate of formation. of condensate per metre
ν = 0.364 × 10-6 m2/s
length of the pipe.m
k = 0.6687 W/mK
µ= ρ × ν = 974 × 0.364 × 10-6
Solution: = 354.53 × 10-6 Ns/m2
Properties of steam at 100° C For horizontal tubes, heat transfer co-efficient
[From R.S.Khurmi steam table page No 4] 0.25
 k 3  2 g h fg 
hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg h  0.728 
 D Tsat  T 
w  
hfg = 2256.9×103 J/kg 0.25
 0.6687 3  974 2  9.81  2256.9  103 
 0.728 
We know that,  354 .53  10 6
 2.2  10 2
100  62  
Tw  Tsat
Film temperature, Tf  h= 8783.4 W/m2K
2
Heat transfer (Q)
We know that,

Q=hA(Tsat – Tw)
= h (πDL) (Tsat – Tw )
= 8783.4×π×2.2×10-2×1×(100-62)
L=1m
Q=23068.5W
.
Q  m h fg
. Q
m
h fg

23068.5

2256.9  103
.
m  0.010 kg / s
12. A steam condenser consisting of a square array of, 900 horizontal tubes each 6mm in
diameter. The tubes are exposed to saturated steam at a pressure of 0.18 bar am/ the tube surface
temperature is maintained at 23° C, calculate
1. Heat transfer co-efficient
2. Tire rate at which steam is condensed

Given: We know that Tw  Tsat

Horizontal tubes = 900 Film temperature, Tf 
2
Diameter, D = 6mm = 6 x 10-3 m
23  57.83
Pressure, p = 0.18 bar 
Surface temperature, Tw = 23° C 2
To find: Tf  40.410 C  40 0 C
1. Heat transfer co-efficient, (h)
2. The rate at which steam is condensed, Properties of saturated water at 40° C
[From HMT data book page No.21}
Solution : ρ = 995 kg/m3
Properties of steam at, p = 0.18 bar ν = 0.657 × 10-6 m2/s
[From R.S.Khurmi steam table, page No.8] k = 0.628 W/mK
Tsat = 57.830C µ= ρ × ν = 995x 0.657 x 10-6
= 653.7 x 10-6 Ns/m2
hfg = 2363.9 kJ/kg
hfg = 2363.9 × 103 J/kg; With 900 tubes, a 30 x 30 tube of square array
could be formed
N  900 = 30
 .
For horizontal bank of tubes, heat transfer co-
Q  m h fg
efficient
[From HMT data book, page No. 148] . Q
m
0.25 h fg
 k 3  2 g h fg 
h  0.728  2916.9
 D Tsat  T 
w  
2363.9  103
0.25
 0.6283  9952  9.81  2363.9  103  .
 0.728  m  1.23  10 3 kg / s
 653.7  10  30  6  10 57.83  23
6 3

For complete array, the rate of

h = 4443 W/m2K condensation is
.
Heat transfer (Q) m  900  1.23  10 3
We know that,
 1107  10 3 kg/s
Q=hA(Tsat – Tw) .
= h (πDL) (Tsat – Tw ) m  1.1 kg / s
= 4443×π×6×10-3×1×(57.83-23)
L=1m
Q=2916.9 W
 HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger is defined as an equipment which transfers the heat from a hot fluid to a
cold fluid.
Types of Heat Exchanger:
(Based on relative motion of the fluid)

(i) Parallel flow

(ii) Counter flow
(iii) Cross flow
(i) Parallel flow
(iii) Cross flow

(ii) Counter flow

 DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
METHODS:

(i) Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD).

(ii) Effectiveness by using Number of Transfer Units (є-NTU)

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference(LMTD)

Assumptions:
In order to derive expression for LMTD for various types of heat exchangers, the following
assumptions are made

1. Flow is steady

2. The overall heat transfer co-efficient is constant

3. The specific heats of both fluids are constant.

4. The mass flow rate of both fluids are constant

5. Axial conduction along the tube is negligible.

6. The change in kinetic and potential energies of the fluids are negligible.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference for Parallel Flow

Let us consider an elemental area dA of the

A single pass parallel flow heat exchangers is heat exchanger.
shown in fig. below The heat flow rate is given by
dQ  UdA(T  t )
(1)
We know that
dQ   mh C ph dT  mc C pc dt (2)

dQ   mh C ph dT
Let  dQ
dT 
mh - Mass flow rate of hot fluid mh C ph
mc-Mass flow rate of cold fluid Ch  mh C ph
Cph - Specific heat of hot fluid
 dQ
Cpc- Specific heat of cold fluid dT  (3)
Ch
T1 - Entry temperature of hot fluid
T2 - Exit temperature of hot fluid
t1 - Entry temperature of cold fluid
t2 - Exit temperature of cold fluid
U - Overall heat transfer co-efficient.
 Substituting dQ value from Equ. (1) in Equ.(5)
dQ   mc C pc dt
 1 1 
dQ d  UdA(T  t )   
dt  (4)
 C h Cc 
mc C pc
  T  t
Cc  mc C pc  1 1 
d  UdA  
dQ  C h Cc 
dt 
Cc  1
d 1 
dQ dQ  UdA  
dT  dt      C h Cc 
C h Cc
Integrating
 1 1 
  dQ    2
 C h Cc  d  1 1 

1

 U    dA
 C h Cc 

d  dT  dt
 1 1 
ln    U    A
2
1
 1 1   C h Cc 
d   dQ    (5)  
 C h Cc  ln  2  ln 1   U  1  1  A
 C h Cc 
2  1 1 
ln  U    A (6)
1  C h Cc 
We know that Subsitute C h and C c Values in equ(6)
Q  mh C ph T1  T2   mc C pc t 2  t1  2 T  T t  t 
ln  UA 1 2  2 1 
1  Q Q 
Q  C h T1  T2   Cc t 2  t1  (7)
2 UA
[C  m  C p ]
ln  T1  T2  t2  t1 
1 Q
Q  C h T1  T2 
UAT1  T2  t 2  t1 
Q
1 T1  T2  (8) ln
2

Ch Q 1

From Equ.(7) UAT2  T1  t1  t 2 


2
Q  Cc T1  T2  ln
1
1 t1  t 2  UAT2  t 2   T1  t1 
 (9) 
Cc Q 2
ln
1
 Logarithmic mean temperature difference for
UAT2  t 2   T1  t1  counter flow
Q
T  t 
ln  2 2  Q  UAT m
 T1  t1 

UAT1  t1   T2  t 2  Tm 

T1  t2   T2  t1 
Q  T1  t 2 
 T1  t1  ln  
ln   T 
 2 1 t
T
 2 2 t

Q  UAT m

Where (ΔT)m – Logarithmic mean temperature

difference

Tm 
T1  t1   T2  t2 
T t 
ln  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
Fouling Factors:
The surfaces of a heat exchangers do not remain clean after it has been in use for
some time. The surfaces become fouled with scaling or deposits. The effect of these deposits
affecting the value of overall heat transfer co-efficient (U). This effect is taken care of by
introducing an additional thermal resistance called the fouling resistance (Rf)

Formula used: 3. Surface area of tube

1.Heat transfer rateQ  UAT m A  D1 L
For parallel flow
Tm 
T1  t1   T2  t2  .
T t  4. Q  m h fg
ln  1 1 
 T2  t 2  5. Mass flow rate
For counter flow
T1  t2   T2  t1 
.
m  ρAC
Tm 
T  t 
ln  1 2  Note:
 T2  t1 
2. Heat lost by hot = Heat gained by cold (i) Condition for max. heat transfer occurs
fluid fluid T2 =t2
Qh  Qc
(ii) t2 > T2 then counter flow is preferred.
mh C ph T1  T2   mc C pc t 2  t1 
13. In a double pipe heat exchanger, hot fluid with a specific heat of 2300 J/kg K enters at
380°C and leaves at 3000C.Cold fluid enters at 25°C and leaves at 210°C. Calculate the heat
exchanger area required for counter flow and what would be the percentage of increase in
area if fluid flows were parallel.
Take overall heat transfer coefficient is 750 W/m 2K and mass flow rate of hot fluid Is 1 kg/s
Given:
Specific heat of hot fluid, Cph =2300 J/kgK
Entry temperature of hot fluid, T1= 380°C
Exit temperature of hot fluid, T2 =300°C
Entry temperature of cold fluid, t1 = 125°C
Exit temperature of cold fluid, t 2 =210°C
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U=750 W/m 2 K
Mass flow rate of hot fluid, mh = 1 kg/s
To find:
Heat exchanger area required for
I . Counter flow
2. Parallel flow
3. Percentage-of increase in area
Solution:
. Heat transfer Q  UATm
Q  mh C ph T1  T2 
 1  2300  380  300 184  103  750  A  218.3

3 Area for counter flow A=1.12 m2

Q  184  10 W

Case (i): For counter flow

Tm 
T1  t2   T2  t1 
T  t 
ln  1 2 
 T2  t1 

From HMT data page no.151

Tm 
380  210  300  25
 380  210 
ln 
 300  25 

Tm  218.30 C
Case (ii) . .
Q  m h C ph T1  T2   mc C pc t 2  t1 
For Parallel flow,
.

Tm 
T1  t1   T2  t2  Q  m h C ph T1  T2 
 T1  t1 
ln 
T  t
  1  2300  380  300
 2 2
[From HMT data book page No. 151] Q  184  103W

Tm 
380  25  300  210 Heat transfer Q  UATm
 380  25  184  103  750  A  (193.1)
ln 
 300  210 
Area for parallel flow A =1.27m2
Tm  193.10 C
Case (iii)
1.27  1.12
Percentage of increase in area   100
1.12

=13.33%
14. Saturated steam at 126° C is condensing on the outer tube surface of a single pass heat
exchanger. The heat exchanger heats 1050 kg/h of water from 20°C to 95° C. The overall heat
transfer co-efficient is 1800 W/m2 K. Calculate the following
1. Area of heat exchanger
2. Rate of condensation of steam.
Take hfg = 2185 kJ/kg

Given : To find :
Hot fluid - steam 1. Area of heat exchanger, (A)
(T1 T2) 2. Rate of condensation of steam
Cold fluid - water
Solution :
(t1 t2) .
Saturated steam temperature T1 = T2 = 126°C Heat transfer Q  m c C pc t 2  t1 
Mass flow rate of water, mc = 1050 kg/h
 0.29  4186  95  20
1050

3600 Q  91 103W
mc = 0.29 kg/s
Entry temperature of water, t1, = 20° C
Exit temperature of water, t2 = 95° C
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U =
1800W/m2K
Enthalpy of evaporation, hfg = 2185 kJ/kg
= 2185 x 103 J/kg
 . Heat transfer Q  UATm
Heat transfer Q  m h h fg

. 91  103  1800  A  61
91  103  m h  2185  103
Rate of condensation of steam A  0.828 m 2
.
m h  0.0416 kg/s
Heat transfer Q  UATm
For Parallel flow,

Tm 
T1  t1   T2  t2 
T t 
ln  1 1 
 T2  t 2 
[From HMT data book page No. 151]

Tm 
126  20  126  95
126  20 
ln 
126  95 
Tm  610 C
15. An oil cooler of the form of tubular heat exchanger cools oil from a temperature of 90°C to
35°C by a large pool of stagnant water assumed at constant temperature of 28° C. The tube
length is 32 m and diameter is 28 mm. The specific heat and specific gravity of tire oil are 2.45
kJ/kg K and 0.8 respectively. The velocity of the oil is 62 cm/s. Calculate the overall heat transfer
co-efficient.

Given :
Hot fluid - oil
(T1 T2)
Cold fluid - water
(t1 t2)
Entry temperature of oil, T1 = 90° C
Exit temperature of oil, T2 = 35° C
Entry and Exit temperature of water, t 1= t2 = 28° C
Tube length, L = 32 m
Diameter, D = 28 mm = 0.028 m
Specific heat of oil Cph = 2.45 kJ/kg K
Cph = 2.45 x 103 J/kg K
Specific gravity of oil = 0.8
Velocity of oil, C = 62 cm/s = 0.62 m/s
To find :
Overall heat transfer co-efficient U .

Solution :
Q  m h C ph T1  T2 

Specific gravity of oil 

Density of oil  0.305  2.45  103  90  35
Density of water
 Q  41 103W
 o
w
o
0.8 
1000
Density of oil ρ0=800kg/m3

Mass flow rate of oil

.
m h   0 AC

 800   D 2  0.62
4

 800   0.028 2  0.62
4
.
m h  0.305 kg / s
Heat transfer Q  UATm
For Parallel flow,

Tm 
T1  t1   T2  t2 
 T1  t1 
ln  
T 
 2 2 t
[From HMT data book page No. 151]

Tm 
90  28  35  28
 90  28 
ln 
 35  28 

Tm  25.2 0 C

Q  UATm
41  103  U  DL  Tm

41  103  U    0.028  32  25.2

U  577.9 W/m 2 K
16. In a counter flow double pipe heat exchanger, water is heated from 25°C to 65°C by an oil
with a specific heat of 1.45 KJ/Kg K and mass flow rate is 0.9 Kg/s. The oil is cooled from 230°C
to 1600C. If the overall heat transfer co-efficient is 420 W/m 2 0C, calculate the following.
1) The rate of heat transfer
2) The mass flow rate of water
3) The surface area of the heat exchanger

Given: .
Hot fluid – oil (T1,T2) Q  m h C ph T1  T2 
Cold fluid - water (t1, t2)
Entry temperature of water, t1 = 250 C
 0.9  1.45  103 230  160 
Exit temperature of water, t2 = 650 C Q  91.35  103W
Specific heat of oil, Cph = 1.45 kJ/kg
= 1.45 x 103 J/kg
Mass flow rate of oil, mh =.0.9 kg/s
Entry temperature of oil, T1 = 2300 C
Exit temperature of oil, T2 = 1600 C
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U = 420 W/m 2 0C
To find:
1. The rate of heat transfer, Q
2. Mass flow rate of water, mc
3. Surface area of the heat exchanger, A
 We know that, For cold fluid
Heat transfer Q  UATm .
Q  m c C pc t 2  t1 
For Counter flow,
.
T  t   T2  t1  91.35  10  m c  4186  65  25
3

Tm  1 2
 T1  t 2  Specific heat of water Cpc=4186 J/kg K
ln  
T 
 2 1 t .
m c  0.545 kg/s
[From HMT data book page No. 151]

Tm 
230  65  160  25
Result:
 230  65 
ln 
160.  25  Q  91.35  103W
.
Tm  149.49 0 C m c  0.545 kg/s
A  1.455 m 2
Heat transfer Q  UATm

91.35  103  420  A  149.49

A  1.455 m 2
Problems on cross flow heat exchangers

17. In a cross flow heat exchangers, both fluids unmixed, hot fluid with a specific heat of
2300J/kgK enters at 3800C and leaves at 3000C. Cold fluids enters at 250C and leaves at 2100C.
Calculate the required surface area of heat exchanger. Take overall heat transfer co-efficient is
750W/m2K. Mass flow rate of hot fluid is 1 kg/s.
Given:
Specific heat of hot fluid, Cph = 2300 J/kgK Where, F – Correction factor
Entry temperature of hot fluid, T1 = 3800 C Tm 
T1  t2   T2  t1 
Exit temperature of hot fluid, T2 = 3000 C  T1  t 2 
ln  
Entry temperature of cold fluid, t 1 = 250 C T 
 2 1 t
Exit temperature of cold fluid, t 2 = 2100 C
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U = 750 W/m 2 K Tm 
380  210  300  25
Mass flow rate of hot fluid, mh = 1kg/s  380  210 
ln 
To find:  300  25 
Heat exchanger area (A)
Tm  218.30 C
Solution:
.
This is cross flow, both fluids unmixed type heat
Q  m h C ph T1  T2 
exchanger.
For Cross flow heat exchanger
 1  2300  380  300
Q  FUAT m (1)
From HMT data book page No.151 (Sixth edition) Q  184  103W
To find correction factor F, refer HMT data
book page no 16 (sixth edition) [single pass 184  103  0.97  750  A  218.3
cross flow heat exchanger – Both fluids
unmixed]
A  1.15 m 2

From graph,

t 2  t1
X axis Value P 
T1  t1
210  25
  0.52
380  25

T1  T2
Curve Value R 
t 2  t1

380  300  0.432


210  25
X axis value is 0.52,curve value is
0.432, Corresponding Yaxis value is 0.97

F=0.97

Substitute Q,F,ΔTm and U values in Equ.(1)

Q  FUAT m
18. It is desired to use double pipe counter flow heat exchanger to cool 3 kg/s of oil
Cp=2.1kJ/kgK from 1200C. Cooling water at 200C enters the heat exchanger at a rate of
10kg/s. The overall heat transfer co-efficient of the heat exchanger is 600 W/m 2K and the
heat transfer area is 6m2. Calculate the exit temperatures of oil and water.