IGCSE PHYSICS

Mains Electricity
 Electrical Terms
● Electricity can be defined as the flow of charged particles.
● In electrical circuits, negatively charged electrons flow through a metal wire.
○ The rate of flow of electricity is called current.
○ Current is measured in amperes or amps (A).
● Current is driven around a circuit by voltage.
○ Voltage, sometimes referred to as potential difference, is a type of electrical pressure.
○ Voltage is measured in volts (V).
● The flow of electricity is opposed by resistance.
○ Resistance slows the flow of electricity around a circuit.
○ Resistance is measured in ohms (Ω).

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Electricity is used to
power an almost
limitless selection of
utilities and devices.

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CURRENT

A simple electrical circuit.

Electric current, measured
in amps (A), can be defined
as the flow of electrons
through a metal wire. The
current is driven by a form of
electrical pressure called
voltage (V).

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 Mains Electricity

To consumer
unit
 Mains Electricity
Electrical Safety
● Electricity can be extremely dangerous.
○ Around 50 volts is sufficient to drive a potentially lethal current through
the body.
○ High currents also generate lots of heat, potentially leading to electrical
fires.
● There are a number of safety features built into electrical
appliances.
● Most electrical appliances are insulated.
○ Electrical wires (usually made out of copper) are excellent conductors.
○ Touching a live electrical wire runs the risk of electrocution.
○ For this reason, wires are covered in an insulating material, such as plastic
or rubber.

A hazard warning symbol for

electric shock risk. Without
proper safety features,
electricity is potentially lethal.

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 Electrical Safety
● Some appliances are double insulated.
○ If the appliance does not have a metal casing, it cannot become electrified.
○ These appliances are said to be double insulated:
i. The first layer of insulation is the plastic or rubber casing around the copper wiring.
ii. The second layer of insulation is the casing of the appliance itself.
● Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to cut off the flow of electricity to the appliance.
○ This will only occur if a surge of electricity flows through the appliance.
● If a surge of current flows through a fuse, it will melt and the circuit will be broken.
○ This fuse is said to have ‘blown’.
○ The fuse then needs to be replaced.
● Circuit breakers can switch off electricity to the whole house.
○ Circuit breakers also detect surges in current.
○ When a surge is detected, a switch is opened, immediately breaking the circuit.
○ Circuit breakers can be reset by flicking the switch back to its original position.
○ This makes them much more convenient than fuses.

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 Mains Electricity
CABLE JACKET

WIRE
EXPOSED WIRE
INSULATION

Electrical wires are

wrapped in insulating
materials to help minimise
the risk of electrocution.

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 Mains Electricity
Electrical Safety - The Earth Wire
● All electrical appliances are earthed.
○ A standard UK plug has 3 wires - live, neutral and earth.
○ The live wire carries a voltage of about 230 V.
i. Electricity flows into the appliance through the live wire.
○ The neutral wire carries a voltage of 0 V.
i. Electricity flows out of the appliance through the neutral wire.
○ The earth wire does not usually carry a voltage and, together with a fuse, provides an additional layer of
safety.
● Earthing helps to prevent electric shocks and fires.
○ If a fault develops in an electrical appliance, the metal casing can become a live conductor.
○ If this happens, a large current (referred to as an electrical surge) will flow through the earth wire,
melting the fuse and cutting off the supply of electricity.

ELECTRICAL FAULT SURGE OF CURRENT FUSE MELTS, ISOLATING APPLIANCE

DEVELOPS THROUGH EARTH APPLIANCE FROM LIVE WIRE SAFE
WIRE
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 Mains Electricity
EARTH WIRE

FUSE

NEUTRAL WIRE

A standard UK 3 pin
plug.

LIVE WIRE

INSULATION

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 Mains Electricity
In the UK we use plugs like this one to connect electrical
appliances to the mains supply.
The copper wires are covered in
different coloured plastic
insulating material. This makes
sure the correct wires are
connected to each pin in the
plug.
The live wire is brown.
The neutral wire is blue.
The earth wire is green
and yellow.
 Mains Electricity
The earth wire
connects the
appliance to the
ground outside The fuse is a
the building. It is safety device.
part of the safety
system.

The live wire

The neutral wire
connects the
completes the appliance to the
circuit to the generators at the
power station. power station.
 Mains Electricity
When all the wires are connected correctly, the live wire
should be at the voltage of the mains supply, about 230 V.
The neutral and earth wires should be at a voltage of 0 V.

This allows us to calculate 0 V

the potential difference
between the live, neutral 230 V
and earth wires. 0V
 Mains Electricity
What is the potential V 230 V
difference between:
a. the live and neutral
wires 230 V 0V
b. the live and earth
wires 230 V V
c. the neutral and
earth wires? 0 V

V 230 V
 Mains Electricity
Fuses and switches are always placed in
the live wire of a circuit.
• A fuse is a thin wire inside a glass or
plastic tube.
• Fuses designed to carry 13 A currents
have thicker wires than ones for 5 A or
3 A currents.
• The wire heats up when the current
passes through it.
• If the current in the wire is too high,
the wire gets hot enough to melt. This
breaks the circuit, and the current
stops.
 Mains Electricity
Inside an appliance, the
earth wire is connected
fuse in
to the metal outer case.
live wire

A fault inside the kettle

causes the live and
neutral wires to touch.
Explain what will earth wire connected
happen. to metal case
 Mains Electricity
The fault causes the live and
neutral wires to touch.
The current does not have to
pass through the element of
the kettle, which has a high
resistance. Instead there is a
low resistance path through
the wires.
This low resistance means the current is very large.
The large current heats the wire in the fuse and causes it to
melt. This stops the current before it can cause a fire in the
kettle or in the wires.
 Mains Electricity
A fault can also cause
the live wire to touch
the outer metal casing.
If there was no earth
wire or fuse, anyone
touching the outside of
the kettle would get an
electric shock.
earth wire connected
to metal case
How do the earth wire
and fuse prevent this
happening?
 Mains Electricity

The current goes through the metal

case and the earth wire.
The metal case has a low resistance,
so the current is large.
The large current heats the wire in
the fuse and causes it to melt. This
breaks the circuit so that anyone
touching the kettle will not get a
shock.
 Mains Electricity
Circuit breakers are devices
that cut off the current if the
current is too high, or if they
detect a difference in current
between the live and neutral
wires.

They are used together with

earth wires to help us to use
electricity safely.
This is a type of circuit breaker
(called a residual current device)
that is used with lawnmowers or
other power tools.
Mains Electricity

Switches on circuit breakers are driven

by electromagnets. When a surge in
current is detected, the switch will
immediately open, breaking the circuit
and cutting off the power. Switches can
be easily reset to their original position,
giving them a major advantage over
fuses.

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 Mains Electricity
A fault in a power tool causes the live wire to touch the
outer metal casing.
Explain why this will cause a difference in the currents
in the live and neutral wires.
Usually, the current in the two wires is the same.
If the live wire touches the metal casing, some of the
current goes from the live wire through the casing and
then through the earth wire to the ground. This means
the current in the neutral wire decreases.
This difference in current is detected by a circuit
breaker. The circuit breaker will cut off the current.
Mains Electricity
 DC versus AC
Energy is transferred from cells and batteries to the
components in a circuit when charge passes through them.

Electrons are
‘pushed’ away from
Electrons the negative
returning to the terminal of the cell.
cell have less
energy than the
electrons
leaving the cell. Electrons transfer
energy to
components as they
flow through them.
 DC versus AC
Cells and batteries provide a direct voltage. The direction of
the potential difference they provide stays the same.
Electrons return Electrons are
to the positive ‘pushed’ away from
terminal. the negative
terminal of the cell.

Electrons always
flow around the
circuit in the same
direction.
 DC versus AC
In any circuit, the current is always in the same direction
as the potential difference.
If you remove a cell and put it back the other way, the
current will be in the opposite direction.
The direction of the potential
difference from a cell does not
change, so the current is
constant.

The blue line shows the current

when a cell is replaced by a
lower voltage cell put into the
circuit the other way round.
 DC versus AC
If you could instantaneously keep swapping the direction of
the cell, the current would keep changing direction.

This is a form of alternating current, as the direction of

the current is in one direction and then the other.
 DC versus AC
Power stations produce electricity using rotating generators. The direction of
the potential difference changes many times each second.
A graph of the alternating current (a.c.) produced by a power station looks like
this:

0.02 s

In the UK the alternating current from the mains supply has a

frequency of 50 Hz.
This means that each complete cycle takes s, or 0.02 s.
 DC versus AC
In the UK the alternating current from the mains supply
has a frequency of 50 hertz (50 Hz).
This means that it changes direction 100 times each
second (every 0.01 s), so a complete cycle takes 0.02 s.

0.01 s 0.01 s

0.02 s
 DC versus AC
Summary
Direct current Alternating current
provided by: cells and batteries mains supply generators
movement of always in the same changes direction many
electrons: direction times each second
graph:
 DC versus AC
Explain whether each of these graphs is showing alternating or direct
current.
DC versus AC

This is direct current.

Although the size of the
current varies, it is always
in a positive direction.

This is alternating current.

The current is mostly in the
positive direction, but does
go in the negative direction
some of the time.
DC versus AC

This is direct current.

It is in the negative direction
all the time, so its direction
does not change.

This is alternating current.

The direction of the current
changes regularly.
Power
 Power
• Power is defined as the amount of energy transferred
per unit time.
• It is the amount of energy transferred each second.
• A watt is a unit of power.
• One watt is equal to one joule per second.
• 1 W = 1 J/s

Power = Current x Potential Difference

 Power
Power = Current x Potential Difference

P=IxV

_J = _C x _J =
CJ
___
s s C Cs
 Power
There are three equations that can be used to calculate the power of an
electrical appliance.
Each equation links some of these quantities:

Quantity Symbol Unit

power P watt (W)

energy transferred E joule (J)

time taken t second (s)

current I amp (A)

potential difference V volt (V)

resistance R ohm (Ω)

 Power

energy transferred (J) E

power (W) = P=
time taken (s) t

electrical power = current × potential difference P=I×V

(W) (A) (V)

electrical power = current2 × resistance P = I2 × R

(W) (A2) (Ω)
 Power
When you answer questions on electrical power, you may need to choose
which equation to use, from the information you are given.

A 3 kW kettle has an element with a E

P=
resistance of 18 Ω. Calculate the current in t
the kettle.
P=I×V
Look at the quantities you are given in the
P = I2 × R
question.
3 kW is the power, P
18 Ω is the resistance, R
You need to calculate the current, I
 Power
When you answer questions on electrical power, you may need to choose
which equation to use, from the information you are given.

A 3 kW kettle uses the mains supply of 230 V. E

P=
Calculate the current in the kettle. t
P=I×V
Look at the quantities you are given in the
question. P = I2 × R
3 kW is the power, P
230 V is the potential difference, V
You need to calculate the current, I
 Power
Sometimes a question gives you more information than you need.

A 3 kW kettle uses the 230 V mains supply. Calculate E

the time taken to transfer 200 kJ of energy. P=
t

3 kW is the power, P P=I×V

230 V is the potential difference, V
200 kJ is the energy transferred, E P = I2 × R
You need to calculate the time taken, t

The only equation that includes t is this one. You have values for the
other two quantities in this equation.
 Power
A 3 kW kettle has an element with a
resistance of 18 Ω. Calculate the current in
E
the kettle. P=
t
Method 1 Method 2 P=I×V
P = I2 × R P
I =
2
3000 W = I2 × 18 Ω R P = I2 × R
3000 W 3000 W
I =
2 =
18 Ω 18 Ω
I2 = 166.7 I2 = 166.7
I= I =
= 12.9 A = 12.9 A
 Power
Questions
1 A TV uses a 1.5 A current at 230 V. Calculate its power.
2 A kettle using the 230 V mains supply boils some
water in 1.5 minutes. It transfers 200 kJ of energy.
Calculate the power of the kettle.
3 A 40 W electric blanket uses a current of 0.1 A.
Calculate the resistance of the blanket.
4 A 100 W car kettle uses a 12 V electricity supply. The
kettle transfers 70 000 J of energy to boil some water.
Calculate the time taken.
 Power
A TV uses a 1.5 A current at 230 V.
Calculate its power. E
P=
t

P =I×V You are told the P=I×V

current and potential
= 1.5 A × 230 V difference, and you P = I2 × R
need to calculate the
= 345 W power. You need this
equation.
 Power
A kettle using the 230 V mains supply E
boils some water in 1.5 minutes. The P=
t
kettle transfers 200 kJ of energy.
Calculate the power of the kettle. P=I×V

P = I2 × R
1.5 minutes = 1.5 × 60 s = 90 s
E
P t = You are not told the
current, but you do
200 000 J know the energy and
90 s time, so you need this
= equation.

= 2222 W
 Power
A 40 W electric blanket uses a current of 0.1
A. Calculate the resistance of the blanket. E
P=
t
Method 1 Method 2 P=I×V
P = I2 × R P
R= 2
40 W = (0.1 A)2 × R I P = I2 × R
40 = 0.01 × R 40 W
=
40 W (0.1 A)2
R= = 4000 Ω
0.01
= 4000 Ω
 Power
A 100 W car kettle uses a 12 V electricity E
supply. The kettle transfers 70 000 J of energy P=
t
to boil some water. Calculate the time taken.
P=I×V

Method 1 Method 2 P = I2 × R
E E
P= t =
t P
70 000 J 70 000 J
100 W = =
t 100 W
70 000 = 700 s
t=
100
= 700 s
 Energy & Power
• If the power is the amount of energy transferred every
second, the total energy will be:
Energy = Power x Time
E=Pxt
• Example: If a 1200W kettle is used for 3 minutes, what is
the total energy transferred?
A. E = P x t
= 1200 W x 180 s
= 216,000 J or 216 kJ
 Energy & Power
• Since power = current x potential difference:
Energy = Power x Time
Energy = Current x Potential Difference x Time
E=IxVxt
• Example: How much energy is transferred to a 1.5 V
bulb if a current of 1 amp flows for 10 seconds?
• A. E = I x V x t
= 1 A x 1.5 V x 10 s
= 15 J
 Energy & Power
The energy transferred by an electrical appliance depends
on the current, the potential difference, and how long it is
used for.

energy transferred = current × potential difference × time

(J) (A) (V) (s)

This can also be written as: E = I × V × t

 Energy & Power
An energy-saving light runs off the 230 V mains supply.
The current through the bulb is 0.1 A.
Calculate the energy transferred when it is used for 3
hours.

3 hours = 3 × 60 × 60 s = 10 800 s

E =I×V×t
= 0.1 A × 230 V × 10 800 s
= 248 400 J
 Energy & Power
An electric cooker uses the 230 V mains supply. The
cooker is used to heat a stew for 1 hour (3600 seconds)
and transfers 1800 kJ of energy.
Calculate the current in the circuit.
Method 1 Method 2
E=I×V×t E
I=
1 800 000 J = I × 230 V × 3600 s V×t
1 800 000 J
1 800 000 = I × 828 000 =
230 V × 3600 s
1 800 000 = 2.17 A
I=
828 000
= 2.17 A
 Energy & Power
Questions
1 A TV uses a 1.5 A current at 230 V. Calculate how much
energy it transfers when it is switched on for 2 hours.
2 A kettle using the 230 V mains supply boils some water
in 1 minute. The kettle transfers 200 kJ of energy.
Calculate the current in the circuit.
3 A car kettle uses a 12 V electricity supply, and a current
of 8 A. The kettle transfers 70 000 J of energy to boil
some water. Calculate the time taken.
4 An LED torch uses a current of 0.15 A and transfers 270 J
of energy when it is switched on for 10 minutes.
Calculate the potential difference supplied by its battery.
 Energy & Power
A TV uses a 1.5 A current at 230 V. Calculate how much
energy it transfers when it is switched on for 2 hours.

2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 s = 7200 s

E =I×V×t
= 1.5 A × 230 V × 7200 s
= 2 484 000 J
 Energy & Power
A kettle using the 230 V mains supply boils some water
in 1 minute. The kettle transfers 200 kJ of energy.
Calculate the current in the circuit.
1 minute = 60 s 200 kJ = 200 000 J
Method 1 Method 2
E =I×V×t E
I=
200 000 J = I × 230 V × 60 s V×t
200 000 J
200 000 = I × 13 800 =
230 V × 60 s
200 000 = 14.5 A
I=
13 800
= 14.5 A
 Energy & Power
A car kettle uses a 12 V electricity supply, and a current
of 8 A. The kettle transfers 70 000 J of energy to boil
some water.
Calculate the time taken.
Method 1 Method 2
E =I×V×t E
t=
70 000 J = 8 A × 12 V × t I×V
70 000 J
70 000 = 96 × t =
12 V × 8 A
70 000 = 729 s
t=
96
= 729 s
 Energy & Power
An LED torch uses a current of 0.15 A and transfers 270 J
of energy when it is switched on for 10 minutes.
Calculate the potential difference supplied by its
battery.
10 minutes = 10 × 60 s = 600 s
Method 1 Method 2
E=I×V×t E
V=
270 J = 0.15 A × V × 600 s I×t
270 J
270 = 90 × V =
0.15 A × 600 s
270 =3V
V=
90
=3V