Copyright©2001

Test 1 & 2
 Test 1 and 2 will be held as follows:

Test 1 – 20 October 2012 (Saturday)

Test 2 – 21st December 2012 (Friday)

1
Copyright©2001

Project
 Meeting with the leaders and co-leaders of
the project presentation will be held as
follows:

Date : 4th Oct 2012 (Thursday)

Time : 5.30 pm
Place : Meeting Room 1, FKAAS

2
Copyright©2001

Permeability and
Seepage

3
Copyright©2001

Why studying flow of water in

porous media ???????
 To determine the rate of flow of water through soils

 To determine the hydraulic conductivity of soils

4
Copyright©2001

Practical application

Construction of the
basement of the building

5
Copyright©2001

6
Copyright©2001

Question?

 What causes the flow of water through soils?

 What law describes the flow of water through
soils?
 What is hydraulic conductivity and how is it
determined?
 What are the typical values of hydraulic
conductivity for coarse-grained and fine-
grained soils?

7
Copyright©2001

Flow of Water in Soils depends on

 Porosity of the soil

 Type of the soil (particle size, particle
shape & degree of packing)
 Viscosity of the fluid (Temperature &
Chemical Components)
 Total head (difference in energy) -
Pressure head& Elevation head

8
Copyright©2001

What is permeability?
A measure of how easily a fluid (e.g., water)
can pass through a porous medium (e.g.,
soils)

water

Loose soil Dense soil

- easy to flow - difficult to flow
- high permeability - low permeability 9
Copyright©2001

Bernoulli’s Equation
The energy of a fluid particle is
made of:
1. Kinetic energy
fluid particle

- due to velocity
z
2. Strain energy
- due to pressure
datum
3. Potential energy
- due to elevation (z) with respect to a datum

10
Copyright©2001

Bernoulli’s Equation
Expressing energy in unit of length:
2
u 
h  Z
 w 2g fluid particle

Total head
z

datum
Pressure head
Elevation head
Velocity head 11
Copyright©2001

Bernoulli’s Equation
For flow through soils, velocity (and thus
velocity head) is very small. Therefore,

0 fluid particle
Velocity head
+
z
Total head = Pressure head
+ datum
Elevation head

Total head = Pressure head + Elevation head

12
Copyright©2001

Some Notes
If flow is from A to B, total head is higher at
A than at B.

Energy is dissipated in water

overcoming the soil
resistance and hence B
A
is the head loss.

13
Copyright©2001

Some Notes
Hydraulic gradient (i) between A and B is the total
head loss per unit length.

A L B

H  H1  H2
i
L L

14
Copyright©2001

Hydraulic gradient

The head Loss , h

= hA – hB
=(uA/w + ZA) – ((uB/w + ZB)

Hydraulic gradient, i
= h/L

15
Copyright©2001

Example for Head and hydraulic gradient

Determine the following:

a)The elevation, pressure and

total head at points A and B
b)The head loss between A
and B
c)The hydraulic gradient
between point A and B

Answers: a) point A =6.63m, point B = 5.88m, Total head A= 12.51m

b) 0.75m
c) 0.0375
16
Copyright©2001

Darcy’s Law
•Valid for laminar flow only
•Discharge velocity (v) is proportional to
the hydraulic gradient (i) – Darcy (1856)
v=ki

Permeability
• or hydraulic conductivity
• unit of velocity (cm/sec)

17
Copyright©2001

Discharge velocity and seepage

velocity
• The average velocity, (V) is for the cross-sectional area
normal to the direction of flow

• However the flow of water through soils, occurs only

through the interconnected void

• The velocity through the void spaces is called seepage

velocity (Vs)

• The Vs is obtained by dividing the average velocity by

the porosity
• Vs = V/n
= ki/n 18
Copyright©2001

Vs = v[(1+e)/e] = v/n = ki/n

19
Copyright©2001

Hydraulic conductivity
 Depends on several factors:
1. Fluid viscosity, 
2. Pore size distribution
3. Grain- size distribution
4. Void ratio, e
5. Roughness of particles
6. Degree of saturation, s

20
Copyright©2001

21
Copyright©2001

Hydraulic conductivity measurement

Back calculated

-Rowe cell
- Oedometer test
-Triaxial test

Laboratory In situ/field
Permeability
-Constant head -Slug test
- Falling head -Pumping test

Emperical correlation

-Hazen’s correlation Granular soil

- Kozeny-Carman
-Tavenas et al. (1983) Cohesive soil
22
Copyright©2001

Laboratory measurement of permeability

Constant Head Test Falling Head test

23
Copyright©2001
Laboratory measurement of permeability
Constant head test
Recommended for coarse-
grained soils.
Steady total head drop h is
measured across gauge length L,
as water flows through a sample of
cross-section area A.
Falling head test
Recommended for fine-grained soils.
Total head h in standpipe of area a is
allowed to fall; heads h1 and h2 are
measured at times t1 and t2.
Hydraulic gradient h/L varies with time
24
Copyright©2001

Example of constant head test

 A constant head test has the following
data:
- Soil specimen diameter = 18 cm
- Elevation of water in upper-most
piezometer = 181 cm
- Elevation of water in lowest
piezometer = 116.6 cm
- The piezometer inlets are evenly
spaced at 16.7 cm on center
- The water collected in 112 seconds
is 892 ml

Compute the hydraulic conductivity, k

If the soil specimen has a void ratio of
0.85, compute the seepage velocity.

25
Copyright©2001

Solution
 892ml  1cm 
3
V cm 3
Q   ( 
 
  7 . 96
t  112 s  ml  s
D 2  182
A   254cm 2
4 4
h  181  116 .6 
i    1.29
L  3  16.7 
Q 7.96cm 3 / s 2
k    2  10 cm / s
iA 1.29  254cm 2

e 0.85
n   46%
1  e 1  0.85
ki 2  10  2 cm / s  1.29
Vs    5.6  10  2 cm / s
n 0.46
26
Copyright©2001

Emperical estimates of hydraulic conductivity

Granular soil
Formulae Equation
Hazen (1930)
k (cm / s )  cD102 C = a constant (1.0 to 1.5)
D10 = the effective size (mm)

Kozeny-Carmen 1  w e3
(1927, 1938, k
1956) Cs S 2T 2  1  e
Cs = shape function
Ss = specific surface area per unit volume
T = dimensionless factor accounting the shapes of pores
w = unit weight of water
= viscosity of water
e = void ratio

Carrier (2003)  1  e 3 
k  1.99  10  2 
4

 S s  1  e 
27
Copyright©2001

Emperical estimates of hydraulic conductivity

Cohesive soil

 en 
k  C  
1 e 

28
Copyright©2001

Flow through anisotropic soil

 Alluvial and lacustrine contain thin horizontal
stratifications that reflect their history of
deposition.
 For layered soil, the water flow horizontally
much more easily than vertically.
 Equivalent horizontal and vertical
permeability represent the value for the whole
layer for each direction

29
Copyright©2001

Flow through anisotropic soil

 We can determine the equivalent horizontal and vertical
hydraulic conductivity for layered soils by considering
two constant head test of a layered soil.

30
Copyright©2001

Equivalent hydraulic conductivity in layered soil

Horizontal flow

1
k h ( eq )  k H 1 H1  k H 2 H 2  .......  k Hn H n 
H 31
Copyright©2001

Equivalent hydraulic conductivity in layered soil

Vertical flow
H
kv ( eq ) 
 H1   H 2   Hn 
      ....   
 kv1   kv 2   kvn 

32
Copyright©2001

Example

 A certain varved clay consists of alternating horizontal

layers of silt and clay. The silt layers are 5 mm thick and
have k = 3 x 10-4 cm/s. The clay layers are 20 mm thick
and have k = 6 x 10-7 cm/s. Compute kh and kv.

33
Copyright©2001

Solution

 k h 3 10 4
  
cm / s 0.5cm  6 107 cm / s 2cm
kh  i i
  6 105 cm / s
h i 0.5cm  2cm

kv 
 h
i 0.5cm  2cm
 7 10 7
cm / s
h  0.5cm 2cm
  k  3 10 cm / s  6 10 cm / s
i
4 7
 i 

34
Copyright©2001

Indirect Laboratory measurement of

permeability

Oedometer
Transient consolidation phenomena are
controlled by the coefficient of consolidation.
With knowledge of one-dimensional compliance
mv, coefficient of permeability k can be estimated
from

k = cvmvw

35
Copyright©2001

Field measurement of permeability

 Field or in-situ measurement of permeability

avoids the difficulties involved in obtaining
and setting up undisturbed samples in a
permeameter or oedometer and also
provides information about bulk permeability,
rather than merely the permeability of a small
and possibly unrepresentative sample.

36
Copyright©2001

Field measurement of permeability

Pumping test

37
Copyright©2001

Field measurement of permeability

Pumping test
In a well-pumping test, the steady-state heads h1 and h2 in observation
boreholes at radii r1 and r2 are monitored at flow rate q

In an unconfined (open
surface) soil stratum

 r1 
2.303q log10  
 r2 
k

 h12  h22 
38
Copyright©2001

Field measurement of permeability

Pumping test
In a well-pumping test, the steady-state heads h1 and h2 in observation
boreholes at radii r1 and r2 are monitored at flow rate q

In a confined equifer

 r1 
q log10  
 r2 
k
2.727 H h1  h2 

39
Copyright©2001

Tutorial : Permeability
1. A sample of sand was tested in a constant head permeameter.
The results were:
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Length between manometer tappings = 120mm
Head difference measured by manometer = 80mm
Quantity of water passing through sample in 10 minutes = 150ml
Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil

40
Copyright©2001

Tutorial : Permeability
2. A 100mm diameter sample of fine sand was tested in a falling
head permeameter. The length of the sample was 150mm. Water in
the standpipe fell from 1000 to 400mm in 44 seconds. If the
diameter of the standpipe was 10mm, determine the coefficient of
permeability of the soil.

41
Copyright©2001

Tutorial : Permeability

3. A sample of coarse sand, 55mm in diameter, was tested in a

constant head permeameter. Water percolated through the soil and a
head loss of 100mm was recorded over a length of sample of
150mm. The discharge water, collected after 6.0 seconds had a
mass of 400g.
Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.

42
Copyright©2001

Tutorial : Permeability

4. A falling head permeability

test is to be performed on a soil
whose permeability is estimated
at 3.0 x 10-3 mm/s. What
diameter of standpipe should
be used if the head is to drop
from 275mm to 200mm in 5
minutes?
Assume that the area of the
sample is 1500mm and its
length is 85mm.

43
Copyright©2001

Tutorial : Permeability
A pumping out test was carried out on a soil stratum which extended to a
depth of 20m where an impermeable layer was encountered. Ground
water level originally occurred at 0.5m below the ground level.
Observation wells were placed at 5m and 10m from the pumping well.
During steady pumping conditions water was discharged at the rate of
250 kg/minute and the drawdowns in the two wells were 1.5 and 0.2m
Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil in metres/hour.

44
Copyright©2001

45
Copyright©2001
Seepage

 The flow of water through soil is not in one

direction and not uniform over the entire area.
 The flow nets will be used to calculate the
ground water flow.
 The concept of the flow net is based on
Laplace’s equation of continuity.

46
Copyright©2001

Flow nets
Flow net is a graphical representation of a flow field
with the combination of flow line and equipotential
line
Flow line – flow path of a
particle of water from the
upstream to downstream

Equipotential line- line

representing constant
head

47
Copyright©2001

Example of flow net

48
Copyright©2001

Example of flow net

49
Copyright©2001

Example of flow net

50
Copyright©2001

Example of flow net

51
Copyright©2001

Flownet
A network of selected stream lines and equipotential
lines.

concrete dam

curvilinear
square

90º
soil
52
impervious strata
Copyright©2001
Rate of Seepage (q)- Isotropic soil
number of flow channels (number of flow
Nf lines minus one

q  kh ….per unit length normal to the plane

Nd
number of equipotential drops (number of
equipotential lines minus one

head loss from upstream to

downstream
h

concrete
dam

impervious strata 53
Copyright©2001
Rate of Seepage (q)- Anisotropic soil
Flow net are valid for isotropic soils only. However we can use flow
net by transforming the scale to draw the flow net.

number of flow channels (number of flow

Nf lines minus one

q  k x k z h ….per unit length normal to the plane

Nd
number of equipotential drops (number of
equipotential lines minus one

54
Copyright©2001
Heads at a Point X
Total head (TH)= h - number of drops from upstream x L
Elevation head = -z h

Pressure head = Total head – Elevation head Nd

h
datum
TH = h concrete TH = 0
dam
z

L X

impervious strata
55
Copyright©2001
Piping in Granular Soils
At the downstream, near the dam,
h
the exit hydraulic gradient iexit 
l

hL
datum
concrete
dam l
h = total head drop

soil
56
impervious strata
Copyright©2001

Piping in Granular Soils

If iexit exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient (i cr), firstly
the soil grains at exit get washed away.
This phenomenon progresses towards the upstream, forming
a free passage of water (“pipe”).
 '  Gs  1   w Gs  1
icr    
 w  1 e   w 1 e

h
datum
concrete
dam
no soil; all water

soil
57
impervious strata
Copyright©2001
Piping in Granular Soils
Piping is a very serious problem. It leads to downstream
flooding which can result in loss of lives.
Therefore, provide adequate safety factor against piping.

icr
Fpiping 
iexit

concrete typically 5-6

dam

soil
58
impervious strata
Copyright©2001
Piping Failures

Fontenelle Dam, USA (1965) 59

Copyright©2001

Filters
Used for:
 facilitating drainage

 preventing fines from being washed away

Used in: Filter Materials:

 earth dams  granular soils

 retaining walls  geotextiless

60
Copyright©2001

Granular Filter Design

Two major criteria: granular filter

(a) Retention Criteria

- to prevent washing out of fines

 Filter grains must not be too coarse

(b) Permeability Criteria

- to facilitate drainage and thus avoid

build-up of pore pressures
 Filter grains must not be too fine
61
Copyright©2001

Granular Filter Design

Retention criteria: Permeability criteria:
D15, filter < 5 D85, soil D15, filter > 4 D15, soil
average filter pore size
- after Terzaghi & Peck (1967)

D15, filter < 20 D15, soil

- after US Navy (1971)

D50, filter < 25 D50, soil

GSD Curves for the soil and filter must be parallel 62

Copyright©2001

Drainage Provisions in Retaining Walls

weep hole

geosynthetics

granular soil
63
drain pipe
Copyright©2001

Uplift pressure under hydraulic structures

Flow net can be used to determine the uplift pressure at the base of
hydraulic structure.

The pressure distribution diagram at the base can be obtained from

equipotential line as shown in next figure

64
Copyright©2001

Uplift pressure under hydraulic structures

Nd =7
Different water level = 7m
So, the head loss for each
potential drop is h/Nd = 7/7 =1 m

The uplift pressure at a =

Pressure head at a X w

= [(7+2)-1] w = 8w

The unit force per unit length can

be calculated by finding the area
of the pressure diagram.
65