Chapter -1

Railway Engineering - 1
 Brief History
 In the earlier stage of 17th Century, coaches were built
and it was drawn by horses
 In the year of 1769, Nicholas Joseph Cugnot had
invented and constructed a steam locomotive which
pulled the coaches on roads.
 In the year 1784 timber blocks were laid for pulling
coaches and in the year 1789 the timber was get
replaced by cast iron plates.
 In the year 1832 the first Railway running on steam
engine, was launched in England.
 History of Railways in India
• Launching Passenger Rail Services – 1849 to 1869
 On 1st of August, 1849 the Great Indian Peninsular
Railways Company was established in India.
 On 17th of August 1849, a contract was signed between
the Great Indian Peninsular Railways Company and East
India Company.
 As a result of the contract an experiment was made by
laying a railway track between Bombay and Thane (56
Kms)
 On 16th April, 1853, the first train service was started from
Bombay to Thane.
 On 15th August, 1854, the 2nd train service commenced
between Howrah and Hoogly. 3
 Continued ……

 On the 1st July, 1856, the 3rd train service in India and first
in South India commenced between Vyasarpadi and
Walajah Road and on the same day the section between
Vyasarpadi and Royapuram by Madras Railway Company
was also opened.
 Following the opening of the Calcutta-Delhi line in 1864
and the Allahabad-Jabalpur line in 1867, these lines were
linked with the GIPR to create a 4,000-mile network
spanning the width of India.
• Famine and Economic Growth - 1869-1900
• From 1869-1881, The East India Company took control of
railway construction from external contractors and
increased expansion to help areas struck by famine after
4
intense droughts in the country.
 Continued ……

 The length of the network reached 9,000 miles by 1880, with

lines snaking inward from the three major port cities of
Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
 Year 1890s saw the introduction of new passenger amenities,
including toilets, gas lamps and electric lighting. By this point
the popularity of the railways had skyrocketed and
overcrowding led to the creation of a fourth class onboard.
 By 1895, India had started building its own locomotives and
by 1896 was able to send its own experts and equipment to
assist with the construction of the Uganda Railway.

5
 Continued ……
• Moves towards centralization – 1901 -1925
 After years of construction and financial investment the railways finally
began to make a profit in 1901. Nevertheless, it was during the early years
of this century that the scale of government intervention increased
dramatically.
 The Railway Board was established in 1901, including a government official,
an English railway manager and an agent of one of the company railways.
 Movements were also made towards a more centralized management
system, with both GIPR and East Indian Railways (EIR) being nationalized in
1923.
 Nevertheless, World War I took its toll on Indian rail development, with
production diverted to meet British requirements outside of India. By the
end of the war, the network was in a state of disrepair, with many services
restricted or downgraded. Railway finances were separated from the
general budget in 1924, with the railway receiving its first individual
6
dividend in 1925.
 Continued ……
• Electrification and hard times – 1925 – 1946
 The first electric train ran between Bombay and Kurla on 3
February, 1925, setting a precedent for further electrification in
the coming years.
 By 1929, the railway network had grown to an overall length of
66,000km and carried approximately 620 million passengers
and 90 million tonnes of goods annually.
 Nevertheless, in the last days of the British Rule, world events
continued to play a role in rail activity. The economic
depression kick-started by the Wall Street Crash resulted in
INR11m being withdrawn from the railway reserve fund.
Meanwhile, World War II also blocked railway development, as
wagons were extensively commandeered for military 7
movements.
 Continued ……
• Partition and zonal creation – 1947 – 1980
 In 1947, the departure of Britain split the nation in two, causing
a ripple effect across the railways as more than 40% of the
network was lost to the newly created Pakistan. In the post-
partition uproar, violent mobs damaged railway infrastructure
and attacked trains carrying refugees.
 A few years later, Indian Railways set about manifesting its own
destiny, acquiring the majority of control over railway
franchises in 1949-1950. In 1951-1952, it began reorganizing
the network into zones. The first train between India and
Pakistan, the Samihauta Express, began running between
Amritsar and Lahore in 1976.

8
 Continued ……
• Technology and phasing out steam – 1980 -2000
 The 1980s saw a complete phase-out of steam locomotives, as
electrification was encouraged on by energy crises in the 1970s. Around
4,500 km of track was electrified between 1980 and 1990. Meanwhile,
India’s first metro system opened in Calcutta in 1984.
 Though economic stagnation and political upheaval blocked growth of
the network in the 80s, the 90s saw the opening of the Konkan Railway;
a 738km railway line connecting the western coast of India with the rest
of the country.
 In particular, the Indian Railways online passenger reservation system
was launched in 1985 and gradually introduced at Delhi, Madras,
Bombay and Calcutta. This was designed to allow passengers to reserve
and cancel accommodation on any train from any terminal – a vital
boon for passengers – and was extended with the introduction of the
country-wide network of computerized enhanced reservation9 and
ticketing (CONCERT) in 1995.
 Continued ……
• Moving online and other important projects - 2000-2020
 Since 2000, metro stations have continued to pop up in India’s major
cities, including Delhi (2002), Bangalore (2011), Gurgaon (2013) and
Mumbai (2014).
 Nevertheless, arguably the greatest step forward for IR was the
launch of online train reservations and ticketing through its IRCTC
system in 2002.
 Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC): Under the Eleventh Five Year
Plan of India (2007–12), the Ministry of Railways started constructing
a new Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC) in two long routes, namely
the Eastern and Western freight corridors. The two routes cover a
total length of 3,260 kilometres, with the Eastern Dedicated Freight
Corridor stretching from Ludhiana in Punjab to Dankuni in West
Bengal and the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor from Jawaharlal
10
Nehru Port in Mumbai (Maharashtra) to Dadri in Uttar Pradesh.
 Continued ……
• The above two corridors are expected to decongest railway
network by moving 70% of India's goods train to these two
corridors, are both on track for completion by June 2024.
99% required land for these two have been acquired, and
90% of both WDFC and EDFC has been completed as of
December 2023.
• Golden Quadrilateral Freight Corridor (GQFC) : It has 6
DFCs, 2 are being implemented and the funding for the
remaining 4 was approved in January 2018. The rail tracks
linking four largest metropolitan cities
of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata and two
diagonals North-South Dedicated Freight Corridor (Delhi-
Chennai) and East-West Dedicated Freight
Corridor (Kolkata-Mumbai) are called the Golden
Quadrilateral (GQFC).
12
Section Wise Progress

13
14
Summary of DFDC

15
 Continued ……
• The Gatimaan Express, India’s second fastest train with a top speed
of 160km/h, made its maiden journey from Delhi to Agra on 5 April
2016.
• As of 2021, the fastest train service that operating in the country is
The Vande Bharat Express with a maximum speed of 180 km/h (110
mph) and an average operating speed of 130 km/h
• Indian Railways announced on 31 March 2017 that the country’s
entire rail network would be electrified by 2022, but it may take
another one year..
• High Speed Rail in India: A new 508 km high speed railway is
currently under construction between Indian economic center of
Mumbai and the western city of Ahmedabad at a top speed of
320 km/h (200 mph) along western coast.
• GoI had proposed number of high speed rail corridors across
16 the

country (Please see next page for details)

Continued ……

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18
 Continued ……

• 2024: The future of Indian Railways

Today, Indian Railways manages the fourth-largest rail
network in the world, with tracks spanning more than
120,000km of the country. The railway is preparing for
the future with a number of initiatives. Around 6000
stations are enabled with Wi-Fi services. Indian Railways
has invested in greener technologies in a bid to meet 25%
of its power demand with renewable, primarily solar, by
2025.

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 Organization Structure
• Indian Railways is divided into several zones, which are further
sub-divided into divisions. The number of zones in Indian
Railways increased from six to eight in 1951, nine in 1952 and
sixteen in 2003. 17th Railway Zone in 2010 and 18th in 2019.
Each zonal railway is made up of a certain number of divisions,
each having a divisional headquarters. There are a total of
seventy-three divisions. Each of the 18 zones is headed by a
general manager who reports directly to the Railway Board.
The zones are further divided into divisions under the control
of divisional railway managers (DRM).

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Continued ……

21
Continued ……

22
 Advantages of Railways
 It facilitates long distance travel and transport of bulky goods which are
not easily transported through motor vehicles.
 It helps in the industrialization process of a country by easy
transportation of coal and raw-materials at a cheaper rate.
 It helps in the quick movement of goods from one place to another at
the time of emergencies like famines and scarcity.
 It encourages mobility of labour ad thereby provides a great scope for
employment.
 Railway is the safest form of transport. The chances of accidents and
breakdown of railways are minimum as compared to other modes.
 The carrying capacity of the railways is extremely large. Moreover, its
capacity is elastic which can easily be increased by adding more wagons.
 It is the largest public undertaking in the country. Railways perform
many public utility services. Directly or indirectly create lot of
employment. 23
 Disadvantages of Railways
 The railway requires a large investment of capital. The cost of
construction, maintenance and overhead expenses are very high as
compared to other modes of transport. Moreover, the investments are
specific and immobile. In case the traffic is not sufficient, the
investments may mean wastage of huge resources.
 Another disadvantages of railway transport is its inflexibility. It routes
and timings cannot be adjusted to individual requirements.
 Railway transport is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distances
and small traffic of goods.
 It involves much time and labour in booking and taking delivery of goods
through railways as compared to motor transport.
 Because of huge capital requirements and traffic, railways cannot be
operated economically in rural areas. Thus, large rural areas have no
railway even today. This causes much inconvenience to the people living
24
in rural areas.
 Gauge
The clear minimum horizontal distance between the inner
(running) faces of the two rails forming a track is known as
Gauge. Indian railway followed this practice. In European
countries, the gauge is measured between the inner faces of two
rails at a point 14 mm below the top of the rail.

25
 Different Types of Gauges
• Broad Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the
inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track is 1676mm the
gauge is called Broad Gauge (B.G). At present, this gauge is also
known as standard gauge (earlier it is 1435mm) of India and is the
broadest gauge of the world. The Other countries using the Broad
Gauge are Pakistan, Bangladesh, SriLanka, Brazil, Argentine, etc.
• Suitability: Broad gauge is suitable under the following
Conditions:
– When sufficient funds are available for the railway project.
– When the prospects of revenue are very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in plain areas which are
densely populated i.e. for routes of maximum traffic, intensities and
at places which are centers of industry and commerce.
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 Different Types of Gauges
• Metre Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the
inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track is 1000mm, the
gauge is known as Metre Gauge (M.G). The other countries
using Metre gauge are France, Switzerland, Argentine, etc.
• Suitability: Metre gauge is suitable under the following
Conditions:
– When the funds available for the railway project are
inadequate.
– When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used for tracks in under-developed areas
and in interior areas, where traffic intensity is small and
prospects for future development are not very bright.
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 Different Types of Gauges
• Narrow Gauge: When the clear horizontal distance between the
inner faces of two parallel rails forming a track is either 762mm or
610mm, the gauge is known as Narrow gauge (N.G). The other
countries using narrow gauge are Britain, South Africa, etc.
• Suitability: Narrow gauge is suitable under the following
Conditions:
– When the construction of a track with wider gauge is prohibited
due to the provision of sharp curves, steep gradients, narrow
bridges and tunnels etc.
– When the prospects of revenue are not very bright.
This gauge is, therefore, used in hilly and very thinly populated areas.
The feeder gauge is commonly used for feeding raw materials to big
government manufacturing concerns as well as to private factories
such as steel plants, oil refineries, sugar factories, etc. 28
 CLASSIFICATION OF RAILWAY LINES
• Broad Gauge lines
These lines on Indian Railways are classified into various
categories indicated below, on the basis of maximum
permissible speed.
• (i) Group `A'-For a sanctioned speed of 160 km. per hour

The minimum weight of rail per meter to be adopted will be
60 Kg. in section having the annual traffic density of over 20
GMT and 52 Kgs in other sections.

The minimum sleeper density shall be 1,660 numbers per
Km.

The ballast cushion shall be 30 cm.

Bridges will be built as per revised BG loading of 1975 with a
maximum axle load of 22.5 tonnes for the locomotive and
maximum axle load of 22.9 tonnes for the train (coach) load.
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• (ii) Group `B'-For a sanctioned speed of 130 km. per hour

The minimum weight of rail per meter to be adopted will be 60 Kg. in
sections having traffic density of over 20 GMT and 52 Kg. in other sections.

The minimum sleeper density shall be M+7 where M is length of the rail in
‘m’ (12.8 say 13m).

The ballast cushion shall be 25 cm.
Bridges will be built to revised BG loading of 1975 with a maximum axle load of
22.5 tonnes for the locomotive and maximum axle load of 22.9 tonnes for the
train (coach) load.
• (iii) Group `C'-Suburban Sections.

The minimum weight of rail per meter to be adopted will be 60 Kg. in
sections having traffic density of over 20 GMT and 52 Kg. in other sections.

The minimum sleeper density shall be M + 7.

The ballast cushion shall be 25 cm.
• Bridges will be built to revised BG loading of 1975 with a maximum axle load
of 22.5 tonnes and maximum axle load of 22.9 tonnes for the train load.

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(iv) Group `D'-Where the maximum sanctioned speed is 100 Kms/hour, as at
present.

The minimum weight of rail per meter to be adopted will be 60 Kg in sections
having traffic density of over 20 GMT, 52 Kg. in sections having traffic density
from 10 to 20 GMT and 44.5 Kg in sections having traffic density of less than 10
GMT.

The minimum sleeper density shall be M + 7 in sections having traffic density
above 10 GMT and M + 4 in sections having traffic density below 10 GMT.

The ballast cushion shall be 20 cm.
Bridges shall be built to revised BG loading of 1975 with a maximum axle load
of 22.5 tonnes for the locomotive maximum axle load of 22.9 tonnes for train
load.
(v) Group `E'-Other sections of branch lines with present sanctioned speed.

The minimum weight of rail per meter to be adopted will be 60 Kg in section
having traffic density of over 20 GMT, 52 Kg in sections having traffic density
from 10 to 20 GMT and 44.5 Kg in sections having traffic density of less than 10
GMT.
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
The minimum sleeper density shall be M + 4. However, depending
on local conditions a density higher than M + 4 can be adopted
where traffic density is 10 GMT and above subject to Railway
Board approval.

The ballast cushion shall be 15 cms.
• Bridges will be built to revised BG loading of 1975 with a
maximum axle load of 22.5 tonnes for the locomotives and
maximum axle load of 22.9 tonnes for the train load.

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 Meter Gauge lines
Meter guage lines on Indian Railways is classified into various
categories indicated below :
(i) Trunk Routes.- Having a traffic density of 5 million G. T. per
Km per annum and above or where the speed will be above 70
Km hour

The rail section to be adopted shall be 37 Kgs (75 lbs.)

The sleeper density shall be M + 7. (M= 11.89 say 12m)

The ballast cushion shall be 25 cms.
Bridges will be built to MGML standard of loading i. e. 13.2
tonnes axle loads and a train of 3.87 tonnes per metre run
behind the engine.

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(ii) Main lines (other than trunk routes): Having a traffic density of
2.5 to 5.0 million G. T. Km per Km per annum.

The rail section to be adopted shall be 30 Kg.

The sleeper density shall be M + 7.

The ballast cushion shall be 20 cms.
Bridge will be built to MGML standard of loading i. e. 13.2 tonnes
axle load and a train of 3.87 tonnes per metre run behind the engine.
•(iii) Other main lines and branch lines. Having a traffic density of
1.25 to 2.5 million G. T. per Km per annum.

The rail section shall be 30 Kg.

The sleeper density shall be M + 4.

The ballast cushion shall be 20 cms.
Bridges will be built to MGML standard of loading i. e. 13.2 tonnes
axle loads and a train of 3.87 tonnes per metre run behind the
engine.
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(iv) Tertiary lines. Having a traffic density of below 1.25 million G. T.
Km per Km per annum.

The rail section to be adopted shall be 30 Kg (normally released
second-handrail).

The minimum sleeper density shall be M + 2.
Bridges will be built to MGBL standard of loading i. e. 10.7 tonnes
axle loads and a train of 3.87 tonnes per metre run behind the
engine.

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 PERMANENT WAY AND ITS COMPONENTS
• The permanent way is the elements of railway lines,
generally the pairs of rails typically laid on the sleepers
embedded in ballast, intended to carry trains of a railway.
• A permanent way is the combination of rails, sleepers,
ballasts, fixtures & fastenings and subgrade.

36
37
• Requirements of Ideal Permanent way
 The track should poses sufficient elasticity. It should also possess
sufficient lateral rigidity and stiffness so that it may withstand the
lateral thrust and centrifugal forces.
 The track should be designed that load of the train should be
distribute uniformly over it.
 The gauge of track should be correct and uniform.
 The track should possess high resistance to damage at the time of
derailment and its maintenance cost is minimum.
 In straight reaches, the rail level should be same while on curves,
proper super elevation should be provided.
 The friction between the wheels of rolling stock and rail should be
minimum
 The gradient should be uniform. The joints, point and crossings
38
should be designed and maintained properly.
 RAILS
Rails are the members of the track laid in two parallel lines to
provide an unchanging, continuous, and level surface for the
movement of trains. To be able to withstand stresses, they are made
of high-carbon steel.
Function of Rails: Rails are similar to steel girders. Their functions in
a track are
Rails provides continuous and level surface for the movement of
trains
They provide a pathway which is smooth and has very little friction.
They serve as a lateral guide for the wheels
They bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted
to them through axles and wheels of rolling stock as well as due to
braking and thermal forces.
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 They carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of
the formation through sleepers and the ballast.

Types of rails:

Double Headed Bull Headed Flat – footed

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• i) Double Headed (D.H. Rails): The rail sections, having their head
and foot of same dimensions, are known as double headed or
Dumb-bell rails. These rails have less strength and stiffness as
compared to flat footed rails. These rails are not used now-a-days
on Indian Railway.

• ii) Bull Headed Rails (B.H. Rails): The rail section, having their head
little thicker and stronger ( Bull size) than the lower part are known
as Bull headed rails. These rails have less strength stiffness as
compared to flat footed rails. Bull headed rails are generally used
for constructing points and crossings.

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Rails - DH

42
Rails - BH

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Advantages of Bull Headed Rails
They keep better alignment and give more solid and smoother
track.
The rails can be easily removed and replaced quickly. Hence,
renewal of track is easy.
The heavy chair with large bearing on sleeps gives longer life
to the wooden sleepes and greater stability to the track

Disadvantages of Bull Headed Rails

It require costly fastenings
It has less strength and stiffness
It requires heavy maintenance cost

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iii) Flat Footed Rails (F.F. Rails): The rail sections, having flat foot,
are known as flat footed rails. These rails have more strength and
stiffness as compared to Double Headed Rails & Bull Headed Rails.
Flat footed rails are most commonly used in India.
Advantages of Flat Footed Headed Rails
These rails have more strength and stiffness
Fitting of rails with sleepers is simpler, so they can be easily laid and
re-laid.
Maintenance of points and crossings made with these rails is easy.
They give better stability and longer life to the track and reduce
maintenance cost
These rails are less costly then other types of rails
These rail require less number of fastenings

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• Disadvantages of Flat Footed Headed Rails
 The fittings get loosened more frequently
 The straightening of bent rails are difficult
 Theses rails sink into the wooden sleepers under heavy train
load. Hence, they require bearing plate to overcome this
problem

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Rails - FF

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 Sleepers
Sleepers are the transverse ties that are laid to support the rails.
They have an important role in the track as they transmit the
wheel load from the rails to the ballast. Several types of sleepers
are used on Indian Railways.
i)Functions and Requirements of Sleepers
Functions
To hold the rails to proper gauge in all situations.
To support the rails firmly and evenly throughout.
To distribute the load transmitted through rails over large area of
ballast underneath or to the bridge girders.
To hold the rails to proper level in turnouts and crossovers
To provide and elastic medium between the rails and ballast and
also to absorb the vibrations caused due to moving axle loads. 48
 To maintain proper alignment of the track. On curves proper cant is
provided by raising the outer rail and tamping the required quantity
of ballast bellow the rails.
 To provide the general stability of the permanent way throughout.
 To provide the insulation of track for the electrified for signaling.
 To provide easy replacement of the rail fastenings without any
serious traffic disturbances.
Requirements
 The initial and the maintenance cost of the sleepers should be low.
 The fittings required for fixing the rails on to the sleepers, should be
simple which can be easily adjusted during the maintenance.
 The crushing strength of sleepers should be more with less weight.
 They should be able to maintain a perfect alignment, gauge and
levels of the rails and should afford efficient adjustment and
49
maintenance.
 They should provide sufficient bearing area to hold the rail seats and
for the ballast to be supported on, to resist the crushing due to
movement of heavy axle loads.
 The sleeper spacing should be such as to remove and replace the
ballast during regular maintenance operation.
 They should be capable to resist the shocks and vibrations caused
due to fast moving vehicles at high speeds.
 They should provide insulation facilities for track circuiting in the
electrified sections.
 The sleepers should be strong enough to withstand the pressure
during packing process.
 The sleepers should be of such a design that they remain in their
positions and do not get disturbed due to movement of trains.
 The material used for the sleeper be such that it does not attract the
sabotage and the theft qualities 50
 Sleeper Density and Spacing of Sleepers
 Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is
specified as M + x or N + x, where M or N is the length of the rail in
metres and x is a number that varies according to factors such as (a)
axle load and speed, (b) type and section of rails, (c) type and
strength of the sleepers, (d) type of ballast and ballast cushion, and
(e) nature of formation. Sleeper density is also indicated in terms of
the number of sleepers/km.

 The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper density.

Spacing is not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer
near the joints because of the weakness of the joints and impact of
moving loads on them.

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52
 Classification of Railway Sleepers
Based on the materials used, railway sleepers are classified into
following types.
Wooden sleepers
Concrete sleepers
Steel sleepers
Cast iron sleepers
Composite sleepers

Wooden Sleepers
These are sleepers made of wood. Wooden sleepers are used since
olden days. These are still widely using in some western countries.
Either hardwood or softwood can be used to make wooden sleepers.
However, hardwood sleepers made of oak, jarrah, teakwood are
more famous. Weight of wooden sleepers for BG is 83 Kgs.
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• Benefits of wooden Sleepers

Wood sleepers are cheaper than others and easy to manufacture.

They are light in weight so, they can be easily transported and handled
while installing.

Fasteners can be easily installed to wooden sleepers.
They are good insulators so, rails are well protected.

Any type of gauge can be maintained by wooden sleepers.

They are suitable for all types of rail section. 54

They are well suitable for tracks in coastal areas.
• Drawbacks of Wooden Sleepers

Life of wooden sleepers is very less compared to others.

Weak against fire.

Easily affected by humidity which will cause dry rot, wet rot etc.

Vermin attack can be possible if it is not properly treated.

Poor creep resistance.

Good Attention is required even after laying.

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• Composite sleeper index The composite sleeper index (CSI), which
evolved from a combination of the properties of strength and
hardness, is an index used to determine the suitability of a
particular timber for use as a sleeper from the point of view of
mechanical strength. The CSI is given by the formula

Where S is the figure for the general strength for both green and dry
timber at 12% moisture content and H is the figure for the general
hardness for both green and dry timber at 12% moisture content.
Minimum CSI prescribed for IR for wooden track sleepers is 783,
cross sleepers is 1352 and bridge sleeper is 1455. Compressive
strength is in PSI and Hardness is in lb.
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 Concrete sleepers
• Concrete sleepers are manufactured by concrete with internal
reinforcement. Concrete sleepers used in many countries due to
its high stability and small maintenance. These are more suitable
for high speed rails. Weight of concrete sleepers for BG is 267
Kgs.
• Most of the concrete sleepers are made from pre-stressed
concrete in which internal tension is induced into the sleeper
before casting. Hence, the sleeper withstand well against high
external pressure.

57
Loading conditions adopted by Indian Railways
Concrete sleepers have been designed by the Research Design and
Standard Organization (RDSO) wing of Indian Railways for the following
different loading conditions.
BG sleeper: Vertical load of 15 t at rail seats plus a reaction at the
centre of the sleeper equal to half of the load under the rail seat. The
sleeper is designed to resist a bending moment of 1.33 t m at the rail
seat and 0.52 t m at the centre of the sleeper.
MG sleeper: Vertical loads of 10 t at the rail seats plus a reaction at the
centre of sleeper equal to half of that under the rail seat.

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• Benefits of Concrete Sleeper

Concrete sleepers are heavier than all other types hence, gives
good stability to the rails.

They have long life span so, economically preferable.

They have good Fire resistance.

Corrosion is not occurred in concrete sleepers.

Vermin attack, decay etc. are not occurred. Hence, they are
suitable for all types of soil and moisture conditions.

Bucking strength is more.

Concrete is good insulator so, this type of sleepers are more
suitable for circuited tracks.

Concrete sleepers hold the track strongly and maintains gauge.
• Drawbacks of Concrete Sleepers

Because of heavy weight, handling is difficult.

For tracks on bridges and at crossings, concrete sleepers are not
suitable.

Damage may occur while transporting. 59
 Steel Sleepers
• Steel sleepers are more often used because of stronger than wood
and economical than concrete. They also have good life span. They
are molded in trough shape and placed on ballast in inversed
trough shape. Weight of steel sleepers for BG is 79 Kgs

60
• Benefits

They are light in weight so, easy to transport, to place
and to install.

They are recyclable hence possess good scrap value.

Life span of steel sleepers is more and is about 30 years.

They are good resistant against fire.

They have good resistance against creep

They cannot be attacked by vermin etc.

They are well suitable for tracks of high speeds and
larger loads.

They holds the rail strongly and connecting rail to the
sleeper is also simple.
61
• Drawbacks

Steel can be effected by chemicals easily.

Steel sleepers requires high maintenance.

They are not suitable for all types of ballast which is
provided as bed for sleepers.

If derailment is happened, they damaged very badly and
not suitable for re using.

These are not suitable for all types of rail sections and
gauges.

62
 Cast iron sleepers
• Cast iron sleepers are widely used in the world especially in Indian
railways. They are available in 2 types, pot type sleepers and plate
type sleepers. Pot type sleepers are not suitable for curves
sharper than 4 degrees. CST 9 type of plate sleepers more famous
in Indian railways. Weight of CI sleepers is 87 Kgs.

Pot type sleepers 63

 Plate
Sleepers

• Benefits

Cast iron sleepers can be used for long period up to 60 years.

Their manufacturing is also easy and it can be done locally so, there is no
need for longer transportation.

Vermin attack is impossible in case of cast iron sleepers.

They provide strong seat to the rail.

Damaged cast iron sleepers can be remolded into new sleepers hence,
scrap value of cast iron is good.

Creep of rail can be prevented by cast iron sleepers.
64
• Drawbacks

Cast iron is brittle in nature and it can be damaged easily while
handling. So, transportation, placing is difficult to deal.

Cast iron sleepers can be easily damaged and corroded by salt
water so, they are not suitable for coastal regions.

They may damage badly when derailment happened.

Cast iron is expensive in market when compared to some other
sleeper materials. Hence it is uneconomical.

So many fastening materials are required to fix the rail to the
sleeper.

65
 Composite sleepers
Composite sleepers are modern type sleepers which are
made from waste plastic and rubber. Hence, it is also called
as plastic sleepers. They have many combined properties of
all other types.

66
• Benefits

Composite sleepers are serviceable for longer spans about
50 years.

Composite sleepers are eco-friendly sleepers.

They are light in weight but possess great strength.

Their scrap value is good because of recyclable property of
composite sleepers.

They can be resized easily like wooden sleepers. So, they can
be used for any type of rail section.

Vibrations received from rails are reduced well by these
composite sleepers.
• Drawbacks

Composite sleepers are not that much good against fire.

The cost of sleepers may increase for large scale production.
67
 Ballast
The ballast is a layer of broken stones, gravel, moorum, or any
other granular material placed and packed below and around
sleepers for distributing load from the sleepers to the formation. It
provides drainage as well as longitudinal and lateral stability to
the track.
•Functions of Ballast

Provide a hard and level bed for sleepers

Hold sleepers in place during passage of trains

Transfers and distributes load from sleepers to larger area

Provides effective drainage and keep sleeper dry

Prevent vegetation growth

Prevents water from percolating (capillary rise)
68

Provide track stability
• Requirements of Good Ballast

It should be tough and wear resistant.

It should be hard so that it does not get crushed under
the moving loads.

It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.

It should be non-porous and should not absorb water.

It should resist both attrition and abrasion.

It should be durable and should not get pulverized or
disintegrated under adverse weather conditions.

It should allow for good drainage of water.

It should be cheap and economical.

69
• Sizes of Ballast
• Previously, 50-mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat bottom
sleepers such as concrete and wooden sleepers and 40-mm (1.5")
ballasts were specified for metal sleepers such as CST-9 and trough
sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50-mm (2") ballasts have been
adopted universally for all type of sleepers.
• As far as points and crossings are concerned, these are subjected to
heavy blows of moving loads and are maintained to a higher degree
of precision. A small sized, 25-mm (1") ballast is, therefore,
preferable because of its fineness for slight adjustments, better
compaction, and increased frictional area of the ballast.

• Design of Ballast Section

The design of the ballast section includes the determination of the
depth of the ballast cushion below the sleeper and its profile. 70
• Sizes of Ballast
• Previously, 50-mm (2") ballasts were specified for flat bottom
sleepers such as concrete and wooden sleepers and 40-mm (1.5")
ballasts were specified for metal sleepers such as CST-9 and trough
sleepers. Now, to ensure uniformity, 50-mm (2") ballasts have been
adopted universally for all type of sleepers.
• As far as points and crossings are concerned, these are subjected to
heavy blows of moving loads and are maintained to a higher degree
of precision. A small sized, 25-mm (1") ballast is, therefore,
preferable because of its fineness for slight adjustments, better
compaction, and increased frictional area of the ballast.

• Design of Ballast Section

The design of the ballast section includes the determination of the
depth of the ballast cushion below the sleeper and its profile. 71
• Minimum depth of Ballast Cushion
The load on the sleeper is transferred through the medium of the
ballast to the formation. The pressure distribution in the ballast
section depends upon the size and shape of the ballast and the
degree of consolidation. Though the lines of equal pressure are in the
shape of a bulb, yet for simplicity, the dispersion of load can be
assumed to be roughly 45° to the vertical. In order to ensure that the
load is transferred evenly on the formation, the depth of the ballast
should be such that the dispersion lines do not overlap each other.

Minimum Depth of Ballast

Cushion

Sleeper spacing = width of

the sleeper + 2 × depth of
72
ballast
If a BG track is laid with wooden sleepers with a sleeper density of
N + 6, then the sleeper spacing would be 68.4 cm. If the width of
the sleeper is 25.4 cm, then the depth of the ballast cushion
would be

Ballast Profile
•The ballast profile as per RSDO is given in the figure below.

73
Physical Properties of Ballast
Important Physical Properties of Ballast is given below

In exceptional cases, Relaxation upto 5% may be given by the Chief

Track Engineer (CTE)

74
• Ballast Gradation
Ballast should satisfy the following Grade and size requirements

75
 Subgrade, Formation and Blanket Course
Subgrade: It is the part of embankment/cutting provided above
subsoil by borrowed soil of suitable quality upto bottom of
blanket/ballast.

Formation: It is prepared flat surface, which is ready to receive

the ballast, sleepers, and rails, is called the formation. The
formation is an important constituent of the track, as it supports
the entire track structure. It has the following functions.
To provide a smooth and uniform bed for laying the track.
To bear the load transmitted to it from the moving load through
the ballast.
To facilitate drainage.
To provide stability to the track. 76
• The formation can be in the shape of an embankment or a cutting.
When the formation is in the shape of a raised bank constructed
above the natural ground, it is called an embankment. The
formation at a level below the natural ground is called a cutting.
Normally a cutting or excavation is made through a hilly or natural
ground for providing the railway line at the required level below the
ground level.
• The recommended widths of formation as adopted on Indian
Railways for BG, MG, and NG are given in Table below.

77
 The widths have been calculated for a minimum width of 900 mm in
banks and 600 mm in cuttings and a ballast profile slope of about 1:1.
 The width of a double-line section has been calculated with a track
centre of 5.30 m on BG and 3.96 m on MG. These dimensions are
based on a ballast cushion of 300 mm.
 The side drain should have a minimum of 0.30 m horizontal berm on
the side (i.e., on other than the track side) in order to be fully
effective.

78
 Blanket Layer
It is a layer of specified coarse, granular material of designed
thickness provided over full width of formation between subgrade
and ballast. To avoid failure of track formation due to inadequate
bearing capacity and to safeguard against swelling and shrinking,
adequate blanket thickness must be provided. Need for Provision of
Blanket Layer & its Functions

It reduces traffic-induced stresses to a tolerable limit on the top of

subgrade, thereby, prevents subgrade
It prevents penetration of ballast into the subgrade and also
prevents upward migration of fine particles from subgrade into the
ballast under adverse critical conditions during service.
Its absence may result in bearing capacity as well as progressive
shear failure of subgrade soil 79
 It restricts plastic deformation of subgrade caused due to cyclic
stresses induced by moving loads.
 It results in increased track modulus and thereby reduces track
deformations.
 It prevents mud pumping by separating the ballast and
subgrade soil.
 It ensures that the induced stress in subgrade are below the
threshold stress of subgrade soil.
Depth of Blanket Layer
• Depth of blanket layer of specified material depends primarily
on type of subgrade soil and axle load of the traffic.
Following soils shall not need blanket:
 Rocky beds except those, which are very susceptible to
weathering e.g. rocks consisting of shales and other soft rocks,
which become muddy after coming into contact with water.80
 Well graded Gravel (GW)
 Well graded Sand (SW)
Following soils shall need minimum 45cm thick Blanket:
 Poorly graded Gravel (GP) having Uniformity Coefficient more
than 2.
 Poorly grade Sand (SP) having Uniformity Coefficient more than 2.
 Silty Gravel (GM)
 Silty Gravel – Clayey Gravel (GM – GC).
Following soils shall need minimum 60cm thick Blanket:
 Clayey Gravel (GC)
 Silty Sand (SM)
 Clayey Sand (SC)
 Clayey Silty sand (SM-SC)
Note: The thickness of blanket on above type of soils shall be
increased to 1m, if the plasticity index exceeds 7. 81
• Following types of soils shall need minimum 1m thick Blanket
 Silt with low plasticity (ML)
 Silty clay of low plasticity (ML-CL)
 Clay of low plasticity (CL)
 Silt of medium plasticity (MI)
 Clay of medium plasticity (CI)

• Specifications of Blanket Material

 It should be coarse, granular and well graded.
 Skip graded material is not permitted.
 Non -plastic fines (particles of size less than 75 micron) are limited
maximum to 12%, whereas plastic fines are limited maximum to 5%.
 The material should be well graded with Cu and Cc as under:
Uniformity coefficient, Cu = D 60/D10 > 4 (preferably > 7) Coefficient
of curvature, CC = (D 30)2 / D60 x D10 should be within 1 and 3.82
Fixtures and Fastenings
 What is Fixtures and Fastenings
• All those fittings which are required for connecting the rails
end to end and for fixing the rails to the sleepers in a track
are known as fixtures and fastenings. They are include
• Fish plates
• Spikes
• Bolts
• Chairs
• Keys
• Blocks
• Bearing plates

84
 Functions of fixtures and Fastenings

• To keep the rails in the proper positions.

• Connection of rail to rail.
• To set points and crossings properly
• To allow for expansion and contraction of rails.

85
Fish Plates
• These plates are used to maintain proper alignment
of the rail line.
• They maintain the continuity of the rails and also
allow expansion or contraction of rails caused due to
temperature variations.
• Generally, these plates are made of mild steel and 20
mm in thickness. They are 45.6 cm long and
provided with 4 no. of 32 mm diameter holes at 11.4
center to center.

86
 Fish Plates
• Fish plates are manufactured using a special
type of steel (Indian Railways specification T-
1/57) with composition given below:
– Carbon: 0.30–0.42%
– Manganese: not more than 0.6%
– Silicon: not more than 0.15%
– Sulphur and phosphorous: not more than 0.06%

87
 Fish Plates
• Indian railways generally adopt following two
types of fish plates:
– Bone shaped fish plate
– Increased depth fish plate
– Combination fish plates
• Bone shaped fish plate is used for connecting flat
footed rails. The increased depth fish plate is generally
used for connecting Bull-headed rails. Combination
fish plates are used to connect to different rail sections.

88
Fish Plates

89
Fish Plates
• Combination or junction fish plates are used to
connect rails of two differential sections.
• These are designed to cover the rail section at either
end adequately up to the point in the centre where
the rail section changes.
• Another design feature in these junction fish plates is
the elimination of the expansion gap in order to give
them more strength.

90
 Spikes
• They are used to hold the rails to the wooden sleeper. A
good spike should have following qualities:
• It should have sufficient strength to hold the rail in
position.
• It should help in maintaining proper gauge.
• It should be easy to fix and replace from the sleepers.

• Indian Railways use following types of spikes:

– Dog spikes
– Screw spikes
– Round spikes
– Standard spikes
91
– Elastic spikes
 Spikes
• Dog Spikes
– This fastening is named dog spike because the head
of this spike looks like the ear of a dog. Dog spikes
are used for fixing rails to wooden sleepers. The dog
spikes has a 16-mm square section and its length
varies from 110mm to 160mm. The number of dog
spikes normally used is as follows:
• Location Number of dog spikes
– On straight track 2 (1 on either side and duly
staggered)
– On curved track 3 (2 outside and 1 inside)
– Joint sleepers, bridges 4 (2 outside and 2 inside )
92
 Spikes
• Dog Spikes

93
 Spikes
• Round Spikes
– Round spikes are used along with anticreep bearing
plates for fixing rails to sleepers
– The round spike has a round section of a diameter of
18 mm, and its length depends upon the purpose it
serves. Round spikes have become obsolete now as
they are loosening quickly

94
 Spikes
• Screw Spikes
– Indian Railways has developed screw spikes with
diameters of 20 mm and 22 mm.
– Screw spikes are used on high-speed, main, and trunk
routes in order to increase the lifespan of wooden
sleepers.
– Screw spikes with a diameter of 20 mm are called ‘plate
screws’ and are used for fixing rails to sleepers with the
help of anticreep bearing plates.
– Screw spikes with a diameter of 22 mm are called ‘rail
screws’ and are used to directly fasten the rails to the
sleepers with or without the use of bearing plates.
95
 Spikes
• Screw Spikes

96
 Spikes
• Spring Spikes
– Spring spikes or elastic rail spikes are used with flat-bottomed
rail, base plates and wooden sleepers. The spring spike holds the
rail down and prevents tipping and also secures the baseplate to
the sleeper.

97
 Chairs
• They are used to hold the double headed and bull
headed rails in required position. They are made of
cast iron having two jaws and a rail seat. In order to
fix the double headed or bull headed rail to a chair,
the rail is placed between the two jaws of the chair.

98
 Bolts
• They are used for connecting :
– Fish plates to the rails at each rail joint.
– Chairs or bearing plates to timber sleepers.
– Sleepers to bridge girders,etc
• The different types of bolts used in Indian Railways are :
– Hook bolts
– Fish bolts
– Fang bolts

99
 Bolts
• Hook Bolts
– Hook bolts are used for fixing timber sleepers to bridge
girders. They are popularly known as dog bolts.

100
 Bolts
• Fish Bolts
– Fish bolts are used to connect fish plates to the rails at
rail joints.

101
 Bolts
• Fang Bolts
– Fang bolts are used for fixing side chairs to the sleepers.

102
 Keys
• They are small tapered pieces of timber or steel to
connect rails to chairs on metal sleepers.
Types of keys generally used are :
- timber keys - metal keys

103
 Blocks
• They are inserted in between the two rails running
close to each other and bolted to maintain the
required distance They may touch either the webs or
the finishing faces or both.

104
 Bearing Plates
• They are the plates placed in between the flat footed rails
and timber sleepers on a track. They serve as chairs for flat
footed rails. They are made of cast iron, wrought iron or
steel. Generally, they are of following types .
– Flat bearing plates
– Canted bearing plates
• Flat bearing plates are used at locations where rails are laid
flat. Also they are used in turn out tracks under points and
crossings.
• Canted Bearing plates are used on soft timber sleepers
beneath outside rail on curves, on sleepers placed on either
side of rail joints, bridges etc. where rails are laid at an
inward tilt of 1 in 20. 105
Bearing Plates

106
 Elastic Fastenings
• The fastenings used to fix the rail to sleeper. In the
process, fastening gets subjected to strong vertical,
lateral, and longitudinal forces.

• The forces, which are predominantly dynamic,

increase rapidly with increasing loads and speeds.

• In addition, vibrations are generated by moving

loads mainly on account of geometrical
irregularities in the track and due to the forces set up
by the imbalance in the rolling stock.
107
 Elastic Fastenings
• The traditional rigid fastening, is no longer able to
effectively meet the present challenge of heavy dynamic
forces and, therefore, becomes loose under the impact of
high frequency vibrations of the order of 800 to 1000 cycles
per second, even at a moderate speed of 100 kmph.

• In fact, this type of fastening is unable to hold the rail to the

sleeper firmly for a satisfactory length of time because of
the constant pressure exerted by moving loads.

• In such cases, fastenings which can resists the vibrations are

required and the elastic fastenings satisfies the requirement.
108
 Elastic Fastenings
• Pandrol clip or elastic rail clip:
– The Pandrol PR 401 clip (also known as an elastic rail clip) is a
standard
– It is a ‘fit and forget’ type of fastening that requires very
little attention towards its maintenance. The clip is made
of a silico–manganese spring steel bar with a diameter of
20.6 mm and is heat treated.
– Pandrol clips can be driven with the help of an ordinary
4-pound hammer and require no special tools.

109
 Elastic Fastenings
• Pandrol clip or elastic rail clip:

110
 Elastic Fastenings
• IRN 202 clip
– The IRN 202 clip is an elastic fastening designed by RDSO to suit
two-block reinforced cement concrete (RCC) sleepers.
– The clip essentially consists of outer legs connected by
means of two coils. It is held in position by a bolt and
clamp arrangement.

111
 Elastic Fastenings
• IRN 202 clip

112
• Track Capacity : The maximum number of
trains which can be moved in each direction
over a specified section of track in a 24 hour
period.
• Density: The volume of traffic moving between
any two points on the railway system. It is
expressed in terms of passenger kilometers or
net tonne kilometres and train kilometres per
running track kilometre or route kilometre.

113