FM Unit4

Fluid Dynamics
• The study of fluid mechanics in which the forces and

energies are considered along with the motion.
• Types of forces –
 Body forces – proportional to volume or weight
e.g. centrifugal, magnetic, gravity etc.
 Surface forces – proportional to area e.g.
pressure, shear or tangential
forces
 Line forces – proportional to length e.g. surface
tension
• Similar to solid mechanics fluid dynamics is also
governed by Newton’s second law of motion.
C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA
Newton’s Second law and Fluid
• Resultant force on any fluid element must be equal to the product of mass
and the acceleration the element in the same direction
Total force Force per unit volume
F  Ma  f  a
F x  Ma x f x  ax
F y  Ma y f y  a y
F z  Ma z f z  az
a is the acceleration of fluid particle, F is the total force acting on fluid particle
and ρ is the mass density; x, y and z indicate the suffix for the components along
respective directions
Various forces acting on the fluid
• Gravity Force Fg = Mg Ma  F  F  F  F  F  F
g p v t s e
• Pressure Force, Fp
• Viscous force, Fv Max  Fgx  Fp x  Fvx  Ftx  Fsx  Fex
• Turbulent Force, Ft
Ma y  Fgxy  Fpy  Fvy  Fty  Fsy  Fey
• Surface Tension, Fs
• Compressibility Maz  Fgz  Fpz  Fvz  Ftz  Fsz  Fez
Force, Fe

Reynolds Equations of fluid motion
For fluid in motion the forces due to surface tension and the
compressibility effects are negligible
Ma  Fg  Fp  Fv  Ft
Max  Fgx  Fp x  Fvx  Ftx

Ma y  Fgxy  Fpy  Fvy  Fty
Maz  Fgz  Fpz  Fvz  Ftz

These equations are useful for the analysis of turbulent flow

Navier-Stokes Equations
For laminar or viscous flow the forces due to turbulence are
negligible
Ma  Fg  Fp  Fv
Max  Fgx  Fp x  Fvx

Ma y  Fgxy  Fpy  Fvy
Maz  Fgz  Fpz  Fvz

These equations are useful for the analysis of laminar flow

Euler's Equations for fluid flow
For ideal fluid flow the viscous forces are negligible
Ma  Fg  Fp
The Euler's equation is
Max  Fgx  Fp x comprised of only
body and surface
Ma y  Fgxy  Fpy forces
Maz  Fgz  Fpz
These equations are useful if the viscosity of the fluid is

negligible or insignificant.
Derivation of Euler's Equation
Q
Q’
R
R’ p
p x
p y z x
δy v δz
P (x,y,z)
u P’
w
δx
S S’

• Let X, Y and Z be the components of body forces per
unit mass at point P
• Mass of parallelepiped = (ρδxδyδz)
• Total component of body force in X-dir n = X (ρδxδyδz)
• Total component of body force in Y-dir n = Y (ρδxδyδz)
• Total component of body force in Z-dir n = Z (ρδxδyδz)
• Pressure intensity at P = p
• Total pressure force acting on PQRS = p (δyδz)
p
• Pressure intensity on P’Q’R’S’ = p 
x
x
p
• Total pressure force acting on PQRS = (p+
p
δx)δyδz

• Net pressure force in X-dirn
p p
Fpx  p y z  ( p   x) y z Fpx    x y z
x x
Similarly,
p p
Fpy    x y z and Fpz    x y z
y z
Adding body forces and pressure forces in X-direction and

equating to the product of mass and acceleration in X-
direction
p
X (  x y z )   x y z   ( x y z )a x ---- A
x
• Thus 1 p
X   ax
 x
• Similarly, 1 p Euler’s
Y   ay equations of
 y fluid motion
1 p
Z   az
 z
Where,
u u u u v v v v
ax  u v  w ay   u  v  w
t x y z t x y z
w w w w
az  u v w
t x y z
u u u u 1 p
u v w  X
t x y z  x
v v v v 1 p
u v  w   Y
t x y z  y
w w w w 1 p
u v w  Z
t x y z  z
No assumption that ρ is constant is made in these equations,

therefore these are applicable to compressible or
incompressible, non-viscous fluid flow in steady as well as
unsteady state
Integration of Euler's Equation
 Gives energy equation under following assumptions
1. There exists a force potential which is defined as the

function whose negative derivative wrt any direction
gives the component of body force per unit mass in that
direction (Ω). Thus,
  
X  Y  Z 
x y z
2. The flow is irrotational i.e. velocity potential exists or the

flow may be rotational but it’s steady

When flow is irrotational
•Consider Euler’s equation in X-direction
1 p u u u u
X  u v w
 x t x y z
u v u w
•If flow is irrotational  ; 
y x z x

•Existence of velocity potential u
x
Therefore,  1 p  2 u v w
   u v w
x  x xt x x x
Thus,   p u 2  v 2  w2  
    0
x   2 t 
 p V 2  
On integrating wrt x     2  t   F1 ( y, z , t )
 
 p V 2  
Similarly, for Y and Z directions     2  t   F2 ( x, z , t )
 
 p V 2  
    2  t   F3 ( x, y, t )
 
Thus, F1 ( y, z , t )  F2 ( x, z , t )  F3 ( x, y, t )
Since x, y and z are the independent variables the above equation will
hold good only if these variables disappear from functional term and F is
only function of t
Therefore,  p V 2  
    2  t   F (t )
 
 p V2
For steady flow,     2   C
 
If the body force exerted on the fluid is only due to gravity and if Z axis is
so oriented that z is measured in vertical direction with reference to
datum then,
  
  0;   0;   g
x y z
Since g is the force per unit mass and can be +ve when acting in
downward direction   gz  C1 At z = 0 Ω = 0, therefore C1 = 0
Therefore,   gz
 p V2 
   2  gz   C Bernoulli’s Equation
 
 p V2   Energy Equation as
  g  2g  z   C each term indicates energy
  per unit weight
 p V2  Each term also indicate

 w  2g  z   C the head e.g. pressure,
  velocity and potential head
Thus, the Bernoulli’s theorem states that for steady flow

of an incompressible fluid the total energy which is the
summation of pressure, velocity and potential energy
remains constant at any point
p V2
Pressure head; 2 g Velocity head or kinetic head;
w
z Potential head or datum head
p 
  z Piezometric head
w 
 p1 V12   p2 V2 2 
   z1     z 2  hL
 w 2   w 2 

• When flow is rotational but steady
• Consider an element of stream filament of CSA
δa
(p+∂p/∂s)δa
δs
pδa

• Let S be the body force per unit mass along streamline
• Mass of fluid element = (ρδa δs)
• Total body force along S-direction = S (ρδa δs)
• Total pressure force on left end = pδa
• Total pressure force on right end = [p+(∂p/∂s) δs] δa
p p
Fps  [( p a )  ( p   s ) a ]    s a
s s
V 1 V 2
Steady flow acceleration as  V 
s 2 s
Newton’s second law p 1 V 2

S (  s a )   s a  (  s a )
of motion s 2 s

S 
s
 1 p 1 V 2
Therefore,   0
s  s 2 s
p V2
  C For incompressible flow
 2
p V 2
For compressible flow   C
 2
  gz p V2 p V2
  gz  C or  z C
 2 w 2
Euler's Equation – an important point
If the flow is irrotational then the same
Bernoulli’s equation is applicable to all the
points in the flow field i. e. for all the
streamlines the value of constant is same.
For rotational flow the Bernoulli's equation is

applicable for a particular streamline i. e. the
value of constant is different for different
streamlines

Bernoulli’s Equation- Principle of
conservation of energy
dm=ρ1V1dtdA1
V1dt
1
p1dA1 1’
Machine work
V2dt
dA1 2
1
1’
dm=ρ2V2dtdA2
2’
In steady flow there is Z1 dA2

no change in the state 2
of fluid between 2’
Sections 1’-1’ and 2-2 Z2 p2dA2
Figure:- Free body of flowing fluid occupying a portion of stream tube between
two arbitrarily chosen sections 1-1 and 2-2
Derivation of BE using conservation of energy
• The general energy equation
 work done on the fluid  Mechanical work 

 by force during dt 
 performed on the fluid 
   
Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid 
   
= between  between 
1'  1' and 2'  2' at t   1-1 and 2-2 at t 2 
 2
• But
Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid 
    
 between 
  between   between 
1  1 and 2  2 at t  
' ' ' '
1'-1' and 2-2 at t 2   2-2 and 2 -2 at t 2 
' '
 2
Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid 

and  between  between
 
 between

    
1  1 and 2  2 at t1   1-1 and 1' -1' at t1   1' -1' and 2-2 at t1 

For steady flow the state of the flowing fluid in the stream tube
within the region bounded by sections 1’-1’ and 2-2 remains
unchanged wrt to time. Thus,
Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid 

   
 between 
  between 
1'  1' and 2  2 at t   1' -1' and 2-2 at t 1 
 2  
Hence the general energy equation for steady flow of fluid is

reduced to  work done on the fluid  Mechanical work 
 by external forces during   performed on the 
   
dt  fluid 
 Total energy of   Total energy of 
   
=  fluid between 
  fl uid between 
 2  2 and 2  2 at t  1-1 and 1 -1 at t 
' ' ' '
 2  1

• For steady flow the mass flow at sections 1-1 and 2-2
during dt being same
Fluid mass between  Fluid mass between 

  
 1  1 and 1'
 1'
  2  2 and 2 '
 2 '

Work done by pressure force (p1dA1) on the free body of the fluid in the
stream tube during dt is + (p1dA1)(V1dt)
Work done by pressure force (p2dA2) on the free body of the fluid in the
stream tube during dt is - (p2dA2)(V2dt)
Net work done performed by pressure forces on the free body of the
fluid in the stream tube during dt is [(p1dA1)(V1dt) - (p2dA2)(V2dt)]

If dm is the total mass of fluid flowing across section
1-1 during dt or if dm is actually the mass of fluid
within 1-1 and 1’-1’ or between 2-2 and 2’-2’, then
dm dm
(V1dA1 )dt  ; and (V2 dA2 )dt 
1 2
Thus net work done by pressure forces on the free body of fluid is
 p1 p2 
   dm
 1  2 
Total work done by the fluid or on the fluid by external device is

±hmgdm

• Gravitational potential energies are given as z 1gdm
and z2gdm and net potential energy is (z1-z2)gdm
(V12 / 2)dm (V22 / 2)dm
• Kinetic energies are ; and net KE
is
dm(V12  V22 ) / 2)
•Thus, general energy equation is given as
 p1 p2  dm 2
   dm  h gdm  ( z  z ) gdm  (V  V 2
1 )
 1  2 
m 2 1 2
2
p1 V12 p2 V22
  gz1    gz2  hL
 2  2
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1    z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
p1 V12
  z1  constant
w 2g
This equation is applicable to the steady flow of an

incompressible fluid

Kinetic energy correction factor
• Velocity is assumed to be uniform over the entire cross-section
in the derivation of BE
• KE at any section can be obtained by integration of KE of all the
particles over the cross section
• If v is the local velocity through dA (a small area along cross
section), the mass flow = ρvdA
• KE of fluid passing through dA = (ρvdA)v2/2
• Total KE possessed by the flowing fluid across entire cross
section A is 3
v w 3
A  2 dA  2 g A v dA
• Convenient way to express KE is with the help of mean velocity
of flow (V).

• However, the actual KE is greater than the KE
computed using mean velocity (V)
• Hence the factor α is introduced such that KE is
w
Actual KE =  AV 3
2g
w w 3 1
• Thus,  AV    3 
3 3
v dA v dA
2g 2g A AV A
• Mathematically, the cube of average is less than the
average of cubes i.e. V 3  1  v3dA α is always
AA
greater than 1

• For turbulent flow α lies between 1.03 to 1.06 which is
close to 1.
• For laminar flow in pipes it is 2.
• The KE in BE can be introduced as
p1 V12 p2 V22
 1  z1   2  z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
Assignment – Prove that for laminar flow α = 2

BE for COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
dp V 2
   2  gz  C
Isothermal Change p p
 K or  K'
  p/K  g
Substitute the value of ρ and integrate the pressure term
V2 or V 2
K log e p   gz  C gK ' log e p   gz  C
2 2
V12 V2 2
K log e p1   gz1  K log e p2   gz2
2 2
2 2
V V
gK ' log e p1  1  gz1  gK ' log e p2  2  gz 2
2 2
V22 V12
K log e ( p1 / p2 )    g ( z2  z1 )
2 2
2 2
V V
K ' log e ( p1 / p2 )  2  1  ( z2  z1 )
2g 2g

dp V 2
   2  gz  C
Adiabatic change p p k is the exponent of

 C1 ; or  C '
k (  g )k
1 adiabatic change
dp dp dp dp
 C1k  ; or
k 1
 C1k  d 
k 2
 C1 g k  ; or
' k k 1
 C1' g k k  k 2 d 
d  d 
 k 1 V 2  k 1
V 2
C1k   gz  C C1' g k k   gz  C
(k  1) 2 (k  1) 2

Adiabatic change
 k 1 V 2  k 1
V 2
C1k   gz  C C1' g k k   gz  C
(k  1) 2 (k  1) 2
k p V2 k p V2
  gz  C   z  C'
k 1  2 k 1 w 2g

Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation
 Discharge measurement
 Venturi meter
 Orifice meter
 Nozzle meter
 Rota meter
 Elbow meter
 velocity measurement
 Pitot tube
The other important equation used in these applications

is continuity equation
Venturi Meter
 a device for measuring a flow rate through a pipe
G B Venturi – an Italian Physicist (1797)
Principle – reduction in cross-sectional area of flow passage
creates pressure difference which enables flow measurement
Pressure
taps
20° 5°
2
1 3
Inlet section Convergent cone Throat Divergent cone

Venturi Meter
• Convergent cone – angle -21°±1; length 2.7(D-d)
• Throat – length is d, diameter of throat is 1/3 to ¾ of dia of
pipe
– Diameter of throat is restricted by a cavitation
• Divergent cone – angle – 5° to 15° (preferably 6°)
– length is much larger than convergent
cone to avoid separation
• Let a1 and a2 be the cross sectional area of inlet section and
sections at 2, respectively; p1 and p2 be corresponding
pressures; V1 and V2 are respective velocities.
• Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2 gives
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1    z2
w 2g w 2g
Venturi Meter
• If Venturi is horizontal z1 = z2
p1 V12 p2 V22 p1 p2 V22 V12
     
w 2g w 2g w w 2g 2g
p1 p2 Represents difference in pressure heads between inlet

 and throat which is known as Venturi head and denoted
w w by h
V22 V12
Therefore, h 
2g 2g
Qth Qth
Continuity equation, Qth  a1V1  a2V2 V1  and V2 
a1 a2
Hence h  Qth  1  1  a1a2 2 gh
  Qth 
2g a2 a2
 2 1  a12  a22
Coefficient of Discharge for Venturi Meter
• Actual discharge is always less than the theoretical discharge
and hence actual discharge can be estimated by introducing a
factor known as coefficient of discharge (Cd) such that
Q
Cd or K 
Qth
• Thus, a1a2 2 gh Constant of a1a2 2 g

Q  Cd C
Venturi meter a12  a22
a a
2
1
2
2
Q  Cd C h
Value of Cd for Venturi ranges between 0.95 to 0.98

Venturi Meter with U-tube manometer
Manometric equation
p1 S  p
 ( z  x)  x  m   z  2
z w  S  w
Flowing fluid
(Sp. Gr. S
p1 p2 S 
  h  x  m  1
Manometric Liquid w w  S 
(Specific Gravity - Sm) x
Find the expression for inclined Venturi

Venturi Meter - Inclined
Bernoulli’s Equation between 1 and 2
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1    z2
w 2g w 2g
2 2
 p1   p2  V2 V1
  z1     z2   
w   w  2g 2g
V22 V12 a1a2 2 gh

h  Q  Cd
2g 2g a12  a22
Manometric equation
p1 p2  Sm 
 ( z1  z2 )  y  x   x 
w w  S 
 p1   p2   Sm  Thus with any position the h may
  z1     z2   h  x   1
w   w   S  be determined by noting x
The vertical position with flow upward is preferred, why

Venturi Meter
Orifice Meter
•Another device for discharge measurement , works on
same principle
•Cheaper arrangement for discharge measurement
Fluid jet
Area a1 Area ao Area

a2
1
It consists of a circular flat plate with a hole concentric with
pipe
Thickness is 0.05d, edge flat for 0.02d and beveled for
0.03d
Orifice Meter
Apply Bernoulli’s
p1 V12 p2 V22 p1 p2 V22 V12

  z1    z2   
w 2g w 2g w w 2g 2g
Thus, V22 V12

h  V2  (2 gh  V12 )1/ 2 Theoretical velocity
2g 2g
If the losses are considered V2  Cv (2 gh  V12 )1/ 2 Cv is the coefficient

of velocity
Continuity equation gives
The area of jet a2
Q  a1V1  a2V2 a2  Cc ao
and area of orifice
ao may be given as
ao 
1/ 2
2 2 a 
2
Thus, V1  V2Cc V2  Cv  2 gh  V2 Cc o
a1 
 a1 
Orifice Meter
Solving for V2 gives 1/ 2
 2 gh 
V2  Cv  2 
1  Cv Cc (ao / a1 ) 
2 2 2
Q  a2V2  Cc aoV2 and CcCv  Cd
Cd ao (2 gh)1/ 2 Where Cd is coefficient of

Q
1  C (a / a )
1/ 2
2 2 2 discharge
d o 1
Its usual practice to use a simple expression such that
1  (a / a )
1/ 2
2 2
Cao (2 gh)1/ 2 Cao a1 (2 gh)1/ 2
C  Cd
o 1
Q 
1  (a / a ) a 
1/ 2 2 1/ 2
1  C (a / a ) a
2 2 2 1/ 2 2 2 2
d o 1 o 1 1 o
This equation has the same form as Venturi meter

Nozzle Meter
Rota Meter
Sample
photographs

Elbow Meter
Q  Cd A 2 gh
Pitot Tube
Simple device for velocity
measurement
h
Principle – if velocity of
flow at a point is reduced to
A
ho zero (stagnation point), the
1 pressure there is increased
due to conversion of KE into
pressure energy
 By measuring this
pressure rise the velocity at a
point can be determined
Bernoulli’s Equation between points 1 and A gives
V2 ho is the static head and
ho   ho  h
2g h is the dynamic head
Dynamic pressure head is

V  2 gh proportional to a square of velocity
Pitot Tube
If the losses are considered the velocity is given as
Where C is the coefficient of pitot tube and is

V  C 2 gh around 0.98
Pitot tube for circular pipe

p1 V 2 p2
 
h w 2g w
( p / w) ( p / w  V 2 / 2g)
p1 p2
2 h 
w w
1
V2
h
2g
Thus, V  2 gh Vact  C 2 gh

Pitot Tube
V1 1 2
x Manometric equation in mts of water

Sm = sp. Gr. of manometric
fluid
p1 p2
S = sp. Gr. Of flowing fluid S  yS  xS m  ( y  x) S  S
w w
p1 p2 S 
  h  x  m  1
w w  S 
 Sm   Sm 
Vth  2 gx   1 Vact  C 2 gx   1
 S   S 
Commercial Pitot Tube

Commercial Pitot Tube

Flow through Orifices
An orifice is a an opening having a
closed perimeter made in the wall at
the bottom of the tank or a vessel
1
containing fluid through which the
fluid may be discharged
h This is used for measurement of
C discharge through tank
z1

Classification of orifices
• Size – small, large (beyond 5cm diameter)
• Shape – Circular, rectangular, square and triangular
• Upstream edge – sharp edged, Bell mouthed or with
round corner
• Discharge conditions – Free discharging
Submerged
Fully submerged Partially submerged

Sharp edged Orifice discharging freely
Vena contracta formation
Streamlines in the jet are parallel

therefore the pressure in the jet is
1 uniform throughout and is equal to
atm pressure
h
C Let the flow through orifice is
z1 steady under the constant head h
2
Consider the sections 1 and
2; 1 being inside the reservoir
And 2 being at the center of
jet at vena contracta

Apply BE between 1 and 2
2 2 V1 is the velocity of
p1 V p2 V
  z1 
1
 0 2 approach as the fluid
approaches the orifice
w 2g w 2g with this velocity
Due to hydrostatic conditions
p1  pa  w(h  z1 ) and p2  pa
Thus, pa  w(h  z1 ) V12 pa V22 V22 V12

  z1    h
w 2g w 2g 2g 2g
Continuity Equation Q  a1V1  acV 2 V22  V12  2 gh

2
a 2 gh
V22  c2 V22  2 gh V2 
a1 1  (ac / a1 ) 2
V1 can be assumed to be very small compared to V2
V2  2 gh Torricelli’s formula
V
V  Cv 2 gh Where Cv  Varies between 0.95 –0.99
Vth
ac a is area of orifice
Coefficient of contraction may be defined as Cc  ac is area at VC
a
For bell mouthed orifice Cc = 1 Qa
Cd 
Qth
Qa  (acV )  Cc a  Cv 2 gh
Qth  a 2 gh
Qa Cc a  Cv 2 gh
Cd   Cd  Cc Cv
Qth a  2 gh
Thus, Qact  Cd a 2 gh

Flow through Large Rectangular Orifice
H H1
h Hc
H2
dh
d dc
bc
b
dQ  Cv 2 gh  bc dh

H c  dc / 2
Q  Cv bc 2 g  
( H c  dc / 2)
h1/ 2 dh
2  dc 
3/ 2
 d c  
3/ 2
Q  Cv bc 2 g   H c     H c   
3  2  2  
Hc, bc or dc are difficult to determine
2 
 d
3/ 2
 d  
3/ 2
Q  Cc Cv b 2 g   H     H   
3  2  2  
2 
 d
3/ 2
 d  
3/ 2
Q  Cd b 2 g   H     H   
3  2  2  
2
Q  Cd b 2 g  H 23/ 2  H13/ 2 
In terms of H1 and H2
3
For large orifice Q  Cd bd 2 g H C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA
If velocity of approach is considered
2
Q  Cd b 2 g  ( H 23/ 2  V12 / 2)  ( H13/ 2  V12 / 2)
3
Flow through Large Circular Orifice
H Hc
dx
x
dc
d
 
Area of strip = 2 (d c / 2) 2  x 2  dx
Vel. of flow through strip = Cv 2 g ( H c  x)

Discharge through strip  

dQ  Cv 2 g ( H c  x) 2 (d c / 2) 2  x 2  dx
H c1/ 2 x H c3/ 2 x 2 H c5/ 2 x3

( H c  x)
1/ 2
H 1/ 2
c     ........ using binominal theorem
2 8 16
 H c1/ 2 x H c3/ 2 x 2 H c5/ 2 x 3 

Thus, dQ  2Cv 2 g ( H c  x)  H c 
1/ 2 1/ 2
   ........ dx
 2 8 16 
On integrating by varying x between (+dc/2) to (-dc/2)
 d c2  d c2 d c4 
Q  Cv 2 gH 1  2
 4
 ........
4  128 H c 1638 H c 
d2  d2 d4 
Q  Cc C v 2 gH 1  2
 4
 ........
4  128 H 1638 H 
d2  d2 d4 
Q  Cd 2 gH 1  2
 4
 ........
4  128 H 1638 H 
For small orifice the quantity in bracket is less than unity
and the actual discharge can be given by
d2
Q  Cd 2 gH
4
Determination of Cv of freely discharging Orifice
1 2
x  Vt and y  gt
2
h 1 x2
C y g 2
2 V
x
gx 2
V
V
2y
y
C
V gx 2 / 2 y x2
Cv  Cv  
Vth 2 gh 4hy
Totally submerged orifice
p1 V12 p2 V22
  z1    z2
H w 2g w 2g
1
p1 p
H1  H1  z2  z1 and 2  H 2
w w
H2 If V1 is negligible
z1 2 V2  2 g ( H1  H 2 )
z2
Q  Cd a 2 g ( H 1  H 2 )
Q  Cd a 2 gH
Partially submerged orifice
Total discharge = Discharge of submerged part

+Discharge of freely discharging orifice
H2 H Q  Q1  Q2
H1
2
Q1  Cd 1b 2 g  H 3/ 2  H 23/ 2 
3
Q2  Cd 2b( H1  H ) 2 gH
2
Q  Cd 1b 2 g  H 3/ 2  H 23/ 2   Cd 2b( H1  H ) 2 gH
3
Notches and Wiers
Nappe or vein
Va
Notch - An opening provided in
Z Crest or sill
the side of the tank such that
liquid surface in the tank is
below the top edge of the
opening
Notches made up of metallic
plates are provided in narrow
channels to measure the rate of
dh h flow
H
Weir – Concrete or masonry
structure built across the river to
raise the level of water on the
Z (height of crest) upstream side and allow the
excess water to flow over the
entire length to the downstream
side
Similar to small dam

Notches and Wiers

Classification of Notches and Wiers
Notches
According to shape – Rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, parabolic
and stepped
According to effect of sides on nappe –
1. Notch with end contraction 2. Notch without end contraction or
suppressed notch
Wiers
According to shape – Rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal
According to shape of crest – Sharp crested weir, narrow crested weir

broad crested, ogee shaped
According to effect of sides on nappe –

1. Notch with end contraction 2. Notch without end contraction or
suppressed notch

Flow over Rectangular Sharp Crested Weir or
Notch
Nappe or vein
H
Va Consider the elemental strip of

thickness dh at a distance of h from
Crest or sill
free surface
Area of strip = L  dh
Velocity of fluid = 2 gh
dh h
H dQ = Cd  L  dh  2 gh
H
L Q =  Cd  L  dh  2 gh
0
2
Q = Cd  L  2 g  H 3/ 2
3
Flow over Rectangular Sharp Crested Weir
or Notch
If velocity of approach = Va , the corresponding head is given as
Va2
ha =
2g
The limits of integration will be ha to H+ha
H  ha
Thus
Q= 
ha
Cd  L  2 gh  dh
2
Q = Cd  L  2 g  ( H  ha )3/ 2  ha3/ 2 
3
H+ha is known as still water head
The above equation is applicable to suppressed weir or notch for

which crest length is equal to the width of channel
Notch with end contraction
End contraction - reduces effective crest length –
contraction of nappe – less discharge
Experimental observation –
Reduction in crest length
depends upon H and for each
contraction it is 0.1H
n=0
n=1
n=2 n=4
Thus, Effective crest length of crest = L  0.1H
Notch with end contraction
2
Q = Cd  2 g  ( L  0.1H )  H 3/ 2 - without Va
3
2
Q = Cd  2 g  ( L  0.1H1 )  ( H1 )3/ 2  ha3/ 2  - with Va
3
Where, H1  ( H  ha )  ( H  Va2 / 2 g )
Mean value of velocity of approach, Va is given as

Q
Va = for the case with end contraction
B( H  Z )
Q
Va = for the case of suppressed weir or notch
L( H  Z )
Triangular Notch
Triangular notch is
x h preferred over rectangular for
H low discharges
θ dh
The crest length in
triangular notch is zero which
gives fairly large head for the
same discharge as compared
to rectangular notch.
x  
= tan x = 2( H  h)tan
2( H  h) 2 2

Area of strip = xdh  2( H  h)tan dh Velocity = 2 gH
2
Therefore  H

dQ  2( H  h)tan dh 2 gh Q  Cd  2( H  h)tan 2 gH dh
2 2
0

Triangular Notch
Hence  H
Q  2Cd 2 g tan   1/ 2
( H h ) h dh
2 0
H
 2 2 
Q  2Cd 2 g tan  Hh3/ 2  h5 / 2 
2 3 5 0
8  5/ 2
Q  Cd 2 g tan H
15 2
8
For θ = 90° Q  Cd 2 g H 5/ 2 If Cd is assumed to be 0.6 Q  1.418 H 5/ 2
15
If velocity of approach is considered
8  Va2
Q  Cd 2 g tan ( H  ha )5/ 2  ha5/ 2  where, ha =
15 2 2g

Navier-Stokes Equation
X-momentum equation for laminar flow of an incompressible flow
u u u u 1 dp    u  u  u
2 2 2
u v  w     2  2
t x y z  dx   x y z 
2
Unsteady term Convective terms Pressure term viscous term
v v v v
Y- momentum  u  v  w   1 dp   2
v  2
v  2
v
  2  2  2

t x y z  dy  x y z 
w
Z - momentum w w w 1 dp    2 w  2 w  2 w 
u v w    2  2  2
t x y z  dz   x y z 
Vector form or coordinate V 1

free form of N-S equation  V .V   p     2V Complete N-S
t  Equation
A note on Navier-Stokes Equation
• The N-S equation is used for analyzing the
laminar flow
• There is a viscous term in N-S equation apart
from the terms in Euler equation
• The viscous term represents the shear forces
acting on the fluid particle
• Analytical solution of this equation for 2D and 3D
is not possible
• Obtaining the numerical solution of this equation
in combination with continuity equation is an
important aspect of computational fluid dynamics
Static, Dynamic and Stagnation Pressure
p V2 p V2
  z  Constant   gz  Constant
w 2g  2
V2
p   gz  Constant
2
Each term in the above equation has pressure units and thus
each term represents some kind of pressure
 p is the static pressure; it represents the actual thermodynamic

pressure
 V 2 / 2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when
the fluid in motion is brought to rest isentropically
 ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure; it accounts for elevation effects
V2 represents the stagnation pressure

p
2
Diagrammatic Representation of static,
dynamic and stagnation pressure
Dynamic
Pitot tube for circularpressure
pipe ρV2/2
Static
Stagnation pressure
pressure, p
V2
p
2

PROBLEM 1
Calculate the kinetic energy correction factor α for the

following velocity distributions in a circular pipe of radius
r0.
1. u  1  r 
um  ro 
u
 1  (r / ro ) 2 
2. um

PROBLEM 2
215 liters of gasoline (specific gravity 0.82) flow per

second upward in an inclined Venturi meter fitted to a
300 mm diameter pipe. The Venturi meter is inclined at
60° to the vertical and its 150 mm diameter throat is 1.2
m from the entrance along its length. Pressure gages
inserted at the entrance and throat show pressures of
0.141 N/mm2 and 0.077 N/mm2 respectively. Calculate
the discharge coefficient of the Venturi meter.
If instead of pressure gages the entrance and throat are
connected to the two limb U-tube mercury manometer,
determine its reading in mm of differential mercury
column.

PROBLEM 3
The pressure leads from a Pitot-tube mounted on an air

craft are connected to a pressure gage in the cockpit. The
dial of the pressure gage is calibrated to read the speed in
m/s.
The calibration is done on the ground by applying a known
pressure across the gage and calculating the equivalent
velocity using incompressible Bernoulli’s equation and
assuming that the density is 1.224 kg/m3
The gage having been calibrated in this way the air craft is
flown at 9200 m, where the density is 0.454 kg/m3 and
ambient pressure is 30000 N/m2. The gage indicates the
velocity of 152 m/s. What is the true speed of the air craft?

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Fluid Dynamics

• The study of fluid mechanics in which the forces and

Total force Force per unit volume

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Max  Fgx  Fp x  Fvx  Ftx

Maz  Fgz  Fpz  Fvz  Ftz

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Max  Fgx  Fp x  Fvx

Maz  Fgz  Fpz  Fvz

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

These equations are useful if the viscosity of the fluid is

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Adding body forces and pressure forces in X-direction and

No assumption that ρ is constant is made in these equations,

1. There exists a force potential which is defined as the

2. The flow is irrotational i.e. velocity potential exists or the

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

 p V2  Each term also indicate

Thus, the Bernoulli’s theorem states that for steady flow

z Potential head or datum head

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Newton’s second law p 1 V 2

For rotational flow the Bernoulli's equation is

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

In steady flow there is Z1 dA2

• The general energy equation

 work done on the fluid  Mechanical work 

Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid 

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Total energy of fluid  Total energy of fluid 

Hence the general energy equation for steady flow of fluid is

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Fluid mass between  Fluid mass between 

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Total work done by the fluid or on the fluid by external device is

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

•Thus, general energy equation is given as

This equation is applicable to the steady flow of an

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

• The KE in BE can be introduced as

Assignment – Prove that for laminar flow α = 2

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Adiabatic change p p k is the exponent of

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

The other important equation used in these applications

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

p1 p2 Represents difference in pressure heads between inlet

• Thus, a1a2 2 gh Constant of a1a2 2 g

Value of Cd for Venturi ranges between 0.95 to 0.98

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

Find the expression for inclined Venturi

C. M. Sewatkar, Faculty, Mech. Engg. Dept., GCOEARA

V22 V12 a1a2 2 gh

The vertical position with flow upward is preferred, why

Area a1 Area ao Area

p1 V12 p2 V22 p1 p2 V22 V12