UNIT 3: RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

Sub Unit 3.1: Fluid Properties

 3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
A typical crude oil contains thousands of different
chemical compound

Normally separated into crude fraction according to the

range of boiling points of the compound included in each
fraction.
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Crude Fraction Boiling Point ˚F Uses

Hydrocarbon gas Up to 100 Fuel gas

Gasoline 100 – 350 Motor fuel

Kerosene 350 – 450 Jet fuel

Light gas oil 450 – 580 Diesel fuel

Heavy gas oil 580 – 750 Lubricating oil

Lubricants and waxes 750 – 950 Lubricating oil, paraffin wax

Residuum 950 + Tars, roofing compound, paving

asphalts
 3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatics Aromatics

Cyclic
Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes
aliphatics
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Alkanes. The homologous series of hydrocarbons designated
by the name alkanes has the general formula CnH2n+2.
Compounds of this family are also called saturated
hydrocarbons because the carbon atoms are attached to as
many hydrogen atoms as possible, i.e., the carbons are
saturated with hydrogen. They are also referred to as paraffin.
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Alkenes. The homologous series known as alkenes is also
called unsaturated hydrocarbons or olefins. The general
formula for the alkene family is CnH2n.
The distinguishing feature of the alkene structure is the
carbon-carbon double bond.
The names of the alkenes are formed with the same
prefixes used in naming the alkanes
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Alkynes. The distinguishing feature of the alkyne
structure is the carbon-carbon triple bond. The general
formula for the alkynes is CnH2n-2.
The alkynes have physical properties essentially the same
as those of the alkanes and alkenes.
The trends in melting points and boiling points are again
apparent. Chemically the alkynes are very much like the
alkenes.
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Cycloaliphatic Hydrocarbons. The carbon atoms in the
compounds we have studied so far are attached to one
another to form chains.
However, in many hydrocarbons compounds the carbon atoms
are arranged in rings. These are called cyclic compounds. The
general formula for the ring without substituent is CnH2n.
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Aromatics. Aromatics compounds include benzene and
compounds that resemble benzene in chemical behavior.
Benzene is unique in that the bonds between the carbon
atoms, each one intermediate between a single and a double
bond.
This type of bond has been called a hybrid bond, a one and
one-half bond, or simply a benzene bond
3.1.1 Hydrocarbon Composition
Non-hydrocarbon components of petroleum. Nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide are common non-
hydrocarbon constituents of the petroleum fluids.
All these three are light molecules and are mainly part of the
gas at the surface.
These three elements are considered impurities and the
detection of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide during fluid
analysis are important to avoid corrosion damages to the
production facilities.
Hydrogen sulfide is a flammable poisonous gas that has an
odor of rotten eggs and can cause death if inhaled within
moderate quantities.
Phase Behavior
Single component
Binary component
Multicomponent system
Phase Diagrams
Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the
physical states of a substance under different
conditions of temperature and pressure.
A typical phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis
and temperature on the x-axis. As we cross the
lines or curves on the phase diagram, a phase change
occurs. In addition, two states of the substance
coexist in equilibrium on the lines or curves.
States of matter
Liquid: A state of matter that consists of loose, free moving
particles which form the shape set by the boundaries of the
container in which the liquid is in. A liquid's relative resistance
to flow is viscosity.
Solid: A state of matter with tightly packed particles which do
not change the shape or volume of the container that it is in.
Solids can expand and contract when temperatures change.
Solids have strong intermolecular forces that keep particles in
close proximity to one another.
Gas: A state of matter where particles are spread out with no
definite shape or volume. The particles of a gas will take the
shape and fill the volume of the container that it is placed in. In
a gas, there are no intermolecular forces holding the particles of
a gas together since each particle travels at its own speed in its
own direction. The particles of a gas are often separated by great
distances.
Phase Behavior
• Single component. Two curves of less interest are the
sublimation curve AD, and the melting curve DB.
• The sublimation curve defines the vapor-solid equilibrium,
and the melting curve defines the liquid-solid equilibrium.
• The vapor pressure curve in Figure starts from point D to
point C. For a single component system only, the dew point
and bubble point pressures at a given temperature are
identical.
• Point D is the triple point where the three phases (vapor,
liquid, and solid) can exist at that pressure and temperature.
Point C is the critical point, the highest temperature and
highest pressure at which the liquid and vapor phases can
exist.
Phase Behavior
Phase Behavior
• Binary component. A binary system is a two component
system. The phase behavior characteristics of the mixture
cannot be directly inferred from the phase behavior of the
individual components.
• The dew-point (0% liquid) pressure will not be the same as
the bubble point pressure at a given temperature.
• The PT diagram will have a phase envelope that outlines the
area of a two phase regime where liquid and vapor phases
coexist
Phase Behavior
PRESSURE, P
The critical points for each component (CI, CII) and
for the mixture, C are marked. It is important to note
that the critical temperature for the mixture lies
between the critical temperatures for the individual
components.
However, the critical pressure of the mixture is
much higher as compared to the critical pressures of
the single components
The phase envelope is outlined by two major curves,
the bubble-point (100% liquid) curve and the dew-
point (0% liquid) curve that start from the critical
point.
Within these two curves is the region where two phase
coexist where the percentage of liquid decreases as
we move towards the dew-point curve from the
bubble-point curve.
The lines indicating the amount of liquid within the
phase envelope region is the lines of constant volume
percent liquid. These lines are also referred to as iso-
vols and quality lines
We can decrease the percentage of liquid within the
phase envelope either by
1. Decreasing pressure at a constant temperature, or
2. Increasing temperature at a constant pressure
This process is fully reversible and is depicted by the
dashed lines starting from point A on the bubble point
curve.
Other two important points on the phase envelope are
the cricondenbar, CB is the highest pressure and the
cricondentherm, CT is the highest temperature on
the phase envelope.
Phase Behavior
• Multicomponent systems. As the number and complexity
of the molecules in a hydrocarbon fluid mixture increases,
the separation between the bubble-point and the dew-point
curves on the phase envelope increases.

• Note the wide range of critical pressures and critical

temperatures and the different positions that the critical
points are located on the phase envelopes
Phase Behavior

Phase diagram of a reservoir fluid

 3.1.2 Reservoir Fluids Types
Reservoir fluids are the fluids (including gases and solids)
that exist in a reservoir.

The fluid type must be determined very early in the life of a

reservoir (often before sampling or initial production)
because fluid type is the critical factor in many of the
decisions that must be made about producing the fluid from
the reservoir.
 Black oil

 Volatile oil

 Retrograde

 Wet gas

 Dry gas
3.1.2 Reservoir Fluid Types-Black oil
• A fluid type categorized as black oil has a critical
temperature well above the reservoir temperature.
• Black oils are made up of a variety of components including
large, heavy, and non-volatile hydrocarbons
• At initial conditions, only one oil phase is present in the
reservoir, and gas comes out of solution once the reservoir
pressure drops below the bubble point pressure at reservoir
temperature.
• The vertical line denoted by 123 indicates the pressure
reduction at constant temperature.
• The separator conditions are also shown.
• The color of the stock tank oil is very dark, often black,
sometimes with a greenish or brownish appearance.
Reservoir Fluid Types
When the reservoir pressure lies anywhere along line
1 → 2, the oil is said to be undersaturated -
meaning the oil could dissolve more gas if more gas
were present.
If the pressure is at 2, the oil is at its bubble point,
and is said to be saturated - meaning the oil contains
the maximum amount of dissolved gas and can't hold
any more gas.
A reduction in pressure at this point will release
gas to form a free gas phase inside the reservoir.
Additional gas evolves from the oil as it moves from
the reservoir to the surface.
This causes some shrinkage of the oil. Black oil is often
called low shrinkage crude oil or ordinary oil.
 3.1.2 Reservoir Fluid Types - volatile
• Volatile oils contain fewer heavy molecules and more
intermediate components (ethane through hexane) than
black oils
• A fluid type categorized as volatile oil has a critical
temperature close to, but greater than reservoir
temperature. (CT>RT)
• There is more gas dissolved in the oil compared to black
oil. The figure shows the phase diagram of a typical volatile
oil.
• Notice that a small reduction in pressure below the
bubble point will result in a large amount of gas being
released.
• The stock tank oil is colored with a brownish or sometimes
greenish appearance
Reservoir Fluid Types
• The phase envelope for a
volatile oil tends to cover a
much narrower temperature
range when compared to a
black oil; but like a black oil, the
reservoir temperature is always
lower than the critical
temperature for the fluid.
• As the reservoir temperature
approaches the critical
temperature a volatile oil will
become more gas-like such that
with even moderate depletion, a
volatile oil reservoir can flash
mainly to gas and have a
relatively low liquid content.
3.1.2 Reservoir Fluid Types – Retrograde
Gas/Condesate Gas
 A fluid type categorized as retrograde gas has a critical
temperature lower than the reservoir temperature and the
phase envelope extends to temperatures higher than the
reservoir temperature. (CT<RT)
 The pressure in the reservoir decreases below dewpoint
pressure during production hence retrograde condensation
gas will occured.
 This process is possible in the reservoir only if the reservoir
temperature lies between the critical temperature and the
cricondentherm (highest temperature on the phase
envelope), and the initial reservoir pressure lies above the
phase envelope.
Reservoir Fluid Types
As pressure is reduced in a condensate gas reservoir,
the fluid will pass through the dew point and large
volumes of liquid will condense in the reservoir.
Consequently, it is important to recognize that a
reservoir contains a condensate gas and re-inject
dry gas to maintain reservoir pressure above the
dew point to maximize recovery of the liquids.
In the diagram below, the retrograde gas exists
completely in a gaseous state inside the reservoir at
point 1. As the pressure decreases, the condensate
exhibits a dew point at point 2. As the reservoir
further depletes and the pressure drops, liquid
condenses from the gas to form a free
liquid inside the reservoir.
3.1.2 Reservoir Fluid Types – Wet
gas/Rich gas
• Natural gas that contains significant heavy hydrocarbons
such as propane, butane and other liquid hydrocarbons is
known as wet gas or rich gas
• The entire phase diagram of a wet gas will lie below the
reservoir temperature. Note that the pressure path line does
not enter the phase envelope, meaning no liquid is ever
formed inside the reservoir.
• This condensate is usually transparent (as water).
Reservoir Fluid Types
3.1.2 Reservoir Fluid Types – Dry gas
• Natural gas that occurs in the absence of condensate or
liquid hydrocarbons, or gas that had condensable
hydrocarbons removed, is called dry gas. It is primarily
methane with some intermediates.
• The hydrocarbon mixture is solely gas in the reservoir and
there is no liquid (condensate surface liquid) formed either
in the reservoir or at surface.
• The pressure path line does not enter into the phase
envelope in the phase diagram, thus there is only dry gas
in the reservoir. Note, the surface separator conditions
also fall outside the phase envelope (in contrast to wet
gas); hence no liquid is formed at the surface separator.
Reservoir Fluid Types
Phase envelope for different reservoir fluids
3.1.4 PVT Analysis
PVT – Pressure-Volume-Temperature Analysis
PVT analysis is the scientific process used to determine phase behavior
and fluid properties of oil and gas samples from your well or reservoir

PVT analysis has 5 different procedures consisting of

1. compositional measurement
2. flash vaporization
3. differential vaporization
4. separator tests
5. oil viscosity measurement.

Function of PVT analysis:

6. Estimate total recovery of reservoir
APPARATUS FOR PVT ANALYSIS
PVT analysis - Compositional Measurement
Compositional analysis generally refers to the measurement
of the distribution of hydrocarbons and other components
present in oil and gas samples. Using modern chromatography
techniques samples are analyzed to determine the
breakdown of the components in the sample.
Composition of light components are determined remaining
heavier components are lumped together result of analysis
give composition in mole fraction or mole percent of the light
ends from methane to hexanes.
The remaining components are lumped together as heptanes
plus (C7+). For the characterization of the plus fractions, the
molecular weight and the specific gravity are measured
 PVT analysis – Flash vaporization
 Known as constant composition expansion / flash liberation test
 The pressure is raised to a value above the expected bubble-point pressure
and then lowered in steps.
 Temperature is set at reservoir temperature.
 No reservoir gas or liquid is removed from the cell.
 The main measurement involves the bubble-point pressure at reservoir
temperature.
PVT analysis – Differential vaporization
 Also known as differential liberation or differential expansion.
 The differential liberation test is designed to model a solution-gas drive
process where much of the liberated gas is being produced and most of
the oil is left behind.
 The bubble-point pressure is restored and temperature is set to reservoir
temperature, followed by pressure reduction in steps. Then all gas is
expelled.
 The process is repeated
until atmospheric pressure
is reached.
 Then temperature is
reduced to 60 °F.
 PVT analysis – Separator test
 The sample liquid in the cell is brought to reservoir temperature and
bubble point pressure
 Then the liquid is expelled through one or more stages of separation.
 The temperature at the various stages of separation is set to represent the
average conditions in the field.
 The pressure at the last stage of separation is always at atmospheric
pressure while the preceding stages are set in order to determine an
optimum pressure that will maximize liquid recovery.

PVT analysis – Oil and gas viscosity

 Oil viscosity is measured using a rolling ball viscometer.
 The liquid used in each measurement is the liquid remaining after gas has
been removed at that pressure.
 Gas viscosity is often calculated based on correlations.
 The correlations often require the gas specific gravities as an input.