Homeostasis

How your body maintains a constant internal environment

What is homeostasis
• Homeostasis is the tendency for an organism or cell to maintain
a constant internal environment within tolerance limits
• Internal equilibrium is maintained by adjusting physiological
processes, including:
• Body temperature (normally between 36 – 38ºC)
• Carbon dioxide concentration (normally 35 – 45 mmHg)
• Blood pH (normally between 7.35 – 7.45)
• Blood glucose levels (normally 75 – 95 mg/dL)
• And many more.
How it works
• Homeostatic mechanisms operate via a feedback loop that may
involve either the nervous or endocrine systems (or both)
• When specialised receptors detect an internal change to
conditions, a response is generated to correct the change
• Most homeostatic responses involve an effect that is antagonistic
to the detected stimulus (negative feedback)
• When levels return to equilibrium, the effector ceases to generate
a response and an internal balance is therefore maintained
• If a physiological condition moves outside of tolerance limits,
disease will occur as a consequence
The cycle
Feedback Loops
• Physiological processes are commonly moderated via two
distinct feedback mechanisms –positive and negative feedback
• Homeostatic processes are controlled by negative
feedback and hence these systems occur more commonly
within the body
Negative Feedback
• Negative feedback involves a response that is the reverse of the change
detected (it functions to reduce the change)
• A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce an
opposite effect – this promotes equilibrium
• Examples of processes that utilise negative feedback loops include
homeostatic systems, such as:
• Thermoregulation (if body temperature changes, mechanisms are induced to
restore normal levels)
• Blood sugar regulation (insulin lowers blood glucose when levels are high ;
glucagon raises blood glucose when levels are low)
• Osmoregulation (ADH is secreted to retain water when dehydrated and its
release is inhibited when the body is hydrated)
Example of a Negative Feedback Loop
Thermoregulation (temperature)
Positive Feedback
• Positive feedback involves a response that reinforces the change detected (it
functions to amplify the change)
• A change is detected by a receptor and an effector is activated to induce the same
effect – this promotes further change
• Positive feedback loops will continue to amplify the initial change until the stimulus is
removed
• Examples of processes that utilise positive feedback loops include:
• Childbirth – stretching of uterine walls cause contractions that further stretch the walls (this
continues until birthing occurs)
• Lactation – the child feeding stimulates milk production which causes further feeding (continues
until baby stops feeding)
• Ovulation – the dominant follicle releases oestrogen which stimulates LH and FSH release to
promote further follicular growth
• Blood clotting – platelets release clotting factors which cause more platelets to aggregate at the
site of injury
Example of a Positive Feedback Loop
Child Birth (contractions)
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is a system of ductless glands that release
chemicals (hormones) into the blood to regulate body functions
• A hormone is a chemical messenger that is transported via the
bloodstream to act on distant target cells
• Hormones are specific and will only activate cells or tissues that
possess the appropriate target receptor
• The endocrine system is slower to initiate, but has a more prolonged
response when compared to the nervous system
Endocrine Signalling
Endocrine Glands
• Endocrine glands secrete their product (hormones) directly into the
bloodstream, rather than through a duct (e.g. exocrine gland)
• Major endocrine glands include the pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid
gland, pineal gland and the gonads (ovaries and testes)
• The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine glands and
function to link the nervous and endocrine systems
• Some organs may also secrete hormones despite not being endocrine
glands (e.g. adipose tissue secretes leptin)
Examples of Endocrine glands
Endocrine Gland locations
Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is the section of the brain that links the
nervous and endocrine systems in order to maintain
homeostasis
• It receives information from nerves throughout the body and
other parts of the brain and initiates endocrine responses
• It secretes certain neurochemicals (called releasing factors) into
a portal system which stimulate or inhibit the pituitary gland
• It also secretes certain hormones directly into the bloodstream
via neurosecretory cells that extend into the pituitary gland
Pituitary gland – The master gland
• The pituitary gland lies adjacent to the hypothalamus and is in direct
contact due to a portal blood system
• The pituitary gland is often referred to as the ‘master gland’, as it
controls the secretion of a number of other endocrine glands
• The pituitary gland receives instructions from the hypothalamus and
consists of two lobes (anterior and posterior lobe)
• The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) releases hormones in
response to stimulation by hypothalamic releasing factors
• The posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) releases hormones
produced by the hypothalamus itself (via neurosecretory cells)