The Nervous System

Stimulation and Response

Overview
• The nervous system coordinates the actions of complex
organisms via the transmission of electrochemical signals
• These signals are transmitted by a specialised network of cells
called neurons
•
The nervous system can be divided into two main parts:
• CNS (Central nervous system) – Made up of the brain and
spinal cord
• PNS (Peripheral nervous system) – Made of peripheral nerves
which link the CNS to the body’s receptors and effectors
Main components
 Central Nervous System
Vs
Peripheral Nervous system
• CNS versus PNS
• The central nervous system integrates information received from peripheral nerves and
coordinates bodily responses
• The majority of this activity occurs in the brain, but certain responses can be mediated by
the spinal cord (reflex actions)
•
The peripheral nervous system sends information to the CNS via sensory neurons and
activates effectors via motor neurons
• The peripheral nerves for a particular region of the body feed into the spinal cord at a
particular site (anatomical dermatome)
• Consequently, damage to a particular region of the spine will affect all body parts
innervated by nerves ventral to that region
• Spinal injuries to the cervical region are most severe as more of the body is affected (C1
– C4 injuries impair normal breathing)
Organisation of the Peripheral Nervous
System (Dermatome)
 The Brain
White Matter versus Grey Matter
• The central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) can be
characterised by two distinct regions – white matter and grey matter
• White matter is composed of bundles of myelinated axons which
connect the various grey matter regions together
• Myelin acts as an insulator and hence nerve signals are transmitted
at greater speed through white matter
• Grey matter is composed of the neuronal cell bodies and dendrites,
as well as unmyelinated nerve fibres
• Grey matter functions as the regions of the brain where information
is processed
Cross Section of the Human Brain
Divisions of the Nervous System
• The nervous system can be broken down into several sub-divisions:
• Firstly, the nervous system can be separated into the central nervous system (CNS)
and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• The PNS can be divided into the sensory (afferent) pathway or the motor (efferent)
pathway
• The motor pathway can be divided according to whether the response is voluntary
(somatic) or involuntary (autonomic)
• Finally, the autonomic division can be split into sympathetic (‘fight or flight’) or
parasympathetic (‘rest and digest’) responses
•
Hint: How do you remember the difference between the afferent and efferent
pathways when they sound the SAME?
• SAME: Sensory neurons = Afferent pathway ; Motor neurons = Efferent pathway
Schematic of the Nervous System
Divisions
Stimulus Response
• The basic pathway for a nerve impulse is described by the stimulus response
model
• A stimulus is a change in the environment (either external or internal) that is
detected by a receptor
• Receptors transform environmental stimuli into electrical nerve impulses
• These impulses are then transmitted via neurons to the central nervous
system where decision-making occurs
• When a response is selected (consciously or unconsciously), the signal is
transmitted via neurons to effectors
• Effectors are organs (either muscles or glands) that produce a response to a
stimulus
• A response is a change in the organism resulting from the detection of a stimulus
Overview of the Stimulus-Response
Pathway
Types of Neurons
Three types of neurons are required to transmit information via the stimulus-
response pathway:
• Sensory neurons transmit information from sensory receptors to the central
nervous system (CNS)
• Relay neurons (interneurons) transmit information within the CNS as part of
the decision-making process
• Motor neurons transmit information from the CNS to effectors (muscles or
glands), in order to initiate a response
• While these three types of neurons share common features, their basic
structure may differ slightly according to their function
• This includes their length, cell body (soma) position and the comparative
distribution of dendrites and axon terminals
Types of nerve cells
Cell structure and naming

Signal flows from dendrite end to axion end

PNS – peripheral nervous system

CNS – central nervous system
Ganglia – collection f neural boddies

Interneuron – connects other neurons together

Motor neuron – sends signal to control effector
– signal from CNS to PNS
Sensory neuron – collects signal from receptor
– signal from PNS to CNS
Reflex Actions
• A reflex is a rapid and involuntary response to a stimulus, resulting from a
simple signalling pathway called a reflex arc
• Reflex actions do not involve the brain – instead sensory information is
directly relayed to motor neurons within the spine
• This results in a faster response, but one that does not involve conscious
thought or deliberation
• Reflex actions are particularly beneficial in survival situations, when quick
reactions are necessary to avoid permanent damage
• A common example of a reflex action is the patellar reflex (‘knee jerk’
response) that occurs when the patellar tendon is tapped
• The patellar reflex is a common test employed by doctors to determine the
presence of spinal lesions