MIND AND

BRAIN
RELATIONS
HIP Prepared by:
Abellar, Cheasca Mae
Alberca, Ma. Bernadette
Alingasa, Mary Kate
 THE MIND-BRAIN
RELATIONSHIP
 is a central question in both philosophy and neuroscience. It
delves into the complex interplay between our mental
experiences and the physical processes of the brain.
 The mind uses the brain, and the brain responds to the mind.
The mind also changes the brain. People choose their actions
—their brains do not force them to do anything. Yes, there
would be no conscious experience without the brain, but
experience cannot be reduced to the brain's actions.
 IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING THIS
RELATIONSHIP IN PHYSIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
 The brain is an extremely complex neuroplastic
responder., it responds in various ways—including
neurochemical, genetic, and electromagnetic changes.
This, in turn, grows and changes structures in the brain,
building or wiring new physical thoughts.
 The brain is never the same because it changes with every
experience you have, every moment of every day.
 Knowing your mind and brain are separate puts you in the
control seat because you can learn to manage your
thoughts and actions. Ultimately, it means you can choose
what you build into your brain and how you choose to
change what's already built in.
 Biological Basis Of Behavior
 By exploring the interplay between genetics, hormones, and the
nervous system.
 Genetic
 studies have shown that certain variations can influence an individual’s
behavior, such as their risk for developing certain mental health disorders.
 Hormones
 are chemical messengers that are released by various glands throughout
the body and can have significant effects on behavior.
For example, the hormone testosterone is associated with aggression and
dominance in both males and females.
 Nervous System
 This includes both the central nervous system, which consists of the brain
and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which includes all the
nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord.
Research has shown that different regions of the brain are associated with
specific behaviors, such as the amygdala’s role in fear and the prefrontal
cortex’s role in decision-making.
Understanding The Biological Basis of Behavior

 can have significant implications for

mental health treatment and
prevention.
 For example, identifying genetic
markers associated with certain
mental health disorders can help
identify individuals at risk and lead to
earlier interventions.
 RESEARCH APPROACHES:
NEUROPATHOLOGICAL STUDIES
Post-Mortem Examination
 holds significant value in understanding the brain's role in behavior and cognition.
 The first official technique for examining the brain.
 Now usually performed by pathologists who examine the body and brain after death
 Researchers can examine the structure and composition of the brain, including the
presence of abnormalities, lesions, or neurodegenerative changes.
 When someone passes away, their brain is preserved with a special chemical so it
can be carefully examined. This helps scientists study different parts of the brain.
 Autopsies, or post-mortem examinations, are helpful for finding any damaged areas
in the brain. By looking at how the person behaved or experienced symptoms while
alive, researchers can connect these with specific areas of damage in the brain. This
method helps understand how the brain influences behavior and clinical symptoms
observed during a person's lifetime.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
 a type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to create
images of brain activity in each brain area
 Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood
flow using a magnetic field.
 Detects the change and flow of oxygenated and
deoxygenated hemoglobin during neural activity
 Active brain areas consume more blood (need more
oxygen and glucose to perform activities)
 Can provide 3D images of the brain, producing a
neuroimage of the brain with areas of activity
highlighted
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

 an imaging test that can help reveal the metabolic or

biochemical function of your tissues and organs.
 uses small amounts of radioactive materials called
radiotracers or radiopharmaceuticals, a special camera and a
computer to evaluate organ and tissue functions
 By identifying changes at the cellular level, PET may detect
the early onset of disease before other imaging tests can.
 The tracer is most often injected into a vein within your hand
or arm. The tracer will then collect into areas of your body
that have higher levels of metabolic or biochemical activity.
This often pinpoints the location of the disease.
 During a positron emission tomography (PET) scan, you lie
on a narrow table that slides into a doughnut-shaped hole.
The scanner takes about 30 minutes to produce detailed
images of metabolic activity in your tissues and organs.
 A PET scan is an effective way to help discover a variety of
conditions, including cancer, heart disease and brain
disorders.
 Electroencephalography (EEG)

 Records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed on the scalp.
 Small sensors are attached to the scalp to pick up the electrical signals produced by the
brain. These signals are recorded by a machine and are looked at by a doctor.
 Brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and are active all the time, even
during asleep. This activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording.
 An EEG can find changes in brain activity that might be useful in diagnosing brain
disorders, especially epilepsy or another seizure disorder. An EEG might also be
helpful for diagnosing or treating:
 Brain tumors
 Brain damage from head injury
 Brain dysfunction that can have a variety of causes (encephalopathy)
 Sleep disorders
 Inflammation of the brain (herpes encephalitis)
 Stroke
 Sleep disorders
 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
 An EEG might also be used to confirm brain death in someone in a persistent coma. A
continuous EEG is used to help find the right level of anesthesia for someone in a
medically induced coma.
 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)

 Measures the magnetic fields produced by neural

activity.
 a test that measures the magnetic fields your brain’s
electrical currents produce.
 It is performed to map brain function and to identify
the exact location of the source of epileptic seizures.
 It is usually combined with a magnetic resonance
imaging to get what is called magnetic source imaging.
 Neurologists and neurosurgeons use MEG for two
purposes:
 To evaluate your brain’s spontaneous activity.
 To check your brain’s response to specific external
stimuli.
 Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)

 are very similar to EEGs because they also use electrodes

and record the tiny electrical changes in the neurons of the
brain
 An event-related potential (ERP) is the neural response
associated with a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event
 often recorded using scalp electroencephalography (EEG)
and looks at the average change in voltage over time starting
at the onset of the stimulus over multiple trials.
 The difference is that researchers present participants with a
stimulus many times, and each wave response is added to a
pool of data. This creates a smooth activation curve of the
collected data, called statistical averaging.
 Event-related potentials are evoked by stimuli and measured
at the scalp with EEG. They are recorded in response to an
isolated, discrete event. Usually, this stimulus is presented
multiple times, which allows the EEG to be averaged after
discarding low-quality trials. This way, the ERP waveforms
become clear.
 R E S E A R C H A P P R O A C H :A
ENS IM A L S T U D IE S

Animal Studies

 “research involving non-human participants”

 research method where animals are observed in their

natural environment is known as ethology
 involve manipulating some independent variable, either in
the animal’s environment (like Pavlov and Skinner) or in
the animal itself (e.g. by genetically altering it).
 based on evolutionary theory

 Animal experiments offer the advantage of allowing

researchers to conduct procedures that would be
impractical or unethical in humans.
 a significant drawback is the challenge of generalizing
findings from animals to humans.
 R E S E A R C H A P P R O A C H :A
ENS IM A L S T U D IE S

Lesion Studies Pharmacological Studies

 Involve deliberately damaging or removing specific  involve administering drugs or substances to
brain regions in order to observe the resulting changes in animals in order to investigate their effects on
behavior or cognitive function behavior, physiology, or neurochemistry
 allows researchers to investigate the functions of  are conducted to understand the mechanisms of
different brain regions by assessing the effects of their action of drugs, explore potential treatments for
dysfunction. neurological or psychiatric disorders, and
 In animal studies, researchers may use lesion techniques
elucidate the role of neurotransmitters and
to induce brain damage in laboratory animals such as
receptors in brain function.
rodents or primates.
 Lesions can be created using various methods, including
surgical removal, chemical injections, or targeted use of
neurotoxins.
 After inducing the lesion, researchers observe how the
animal's behavior or cognitive abilities are affected.
 By selectively damaging specific brain areas and observing
the resulting deficits, researchers can infer the functions of
those areas in the overall functioning of the brain.
 R E S E A R C H A P P R O A C H :A
ENS IM A L S T U D IE S

Optogenetics
 a method for controlling a neuron’s activity using
light and genetic engineering. The process of
changing the information in the genetic code (the
blueprints) of a living thing by adding or deleting
information. Genetic engineering is sometimes
called genetic modification.
 neurons are engineered to express light-sensitive
proteins called opsins. These opsins allow
researchers to control the activity of neurons
using light stimulation.
 use light to selectively activate or inhibit the
activity of specific neurons or neural pathways in
real-time. This precise control over neuronal
activity enables researchers to investigate how
the manipulation of neural circuits influences
behavior, cognition, and other brain functions.
 R E S E A R C H A P P R O A C H :G
E ES N E T IC S T U D IE S
Genetic Studies
 involve investigating the role of genetics in
shaping behavior, cognition, personality traits,
and susceptibility to psychological disorders.
 aim to understand how genetic factors interact
with environmental influences to influence
psychological characteristics.
 Twin Studies
 type of genetic study commonly used in psychology
and behavioral genetics to investigate the relative
contributions of genetic and environmental factors to
various traits and behaviors.
 involve comparing the similarities between
monozygotic (identical) twins, who share 100% of
their genetic material, with dizygotic (fraternal)
twins, who share approximately 50% of their genetic
material, on a particular trait or characteristic.
 Monozygotic Twins (MZ): Monozygotic twins are
formed when a single fertilized egg splits into two
embryos, resulting in genetically identical individuals.
MZ twins share the same genetic makeup and are
considered natural clones of each other.
 Dizygotic Twins (DZ): Dizygotic twins, also known as
fraternal twins, occur when two separate eggs are
fertilized by two separate sperm cells, resulting in
genetically non-identical siblings. DZ twins share
approximately 50% of their genetic material, similar to
other siblings.
 R E S E A R C H A P P R O A C H :G
E ES N E T IC S T U D IE S
 Genome-wide Association Studies
(GWAS)
 a type of genetic study used to identify genetic
variations associated with complex traits, diseases, and
other phenotypes.
 examine the entire genome of individuals to identify
specific genetic variants—usually single nucleotide
polymorphisms (SNPs)—that are statistically
associated with the trait or condition of interest.
 GWAS have been instrumental in uncovering the
genetic architecture of complex traits and diseases,
including psychiatric disorders, cardiovascular
diseases, and various quantitative traits such as height,
body mass index (BMI), and cognitive abilities.
 By identifying genetic variants associated with
these traits, GWAS provide insights into the
underlying biological mechanisms and pathways
involved in trait variation and disease susceptibility.
 Gene knockout/knockdown studies
 experimental techniques used in genetics and molecular
biology to investigate the function of specific genes by
either eliminating (knocking out) or reducing
(knockdown) their expression in an organism
 Gene Knockout: Scientists can completely remove
specific genes from an organism's genetic code.
They do this using techniques like genetic
engineering or CRISPR/Cas9 editing. This process
disrupts the gene's function, essentially turning it
off.
 Gene Knockdown: Scientists can decrease the
activity of certain genes by using methods like RNA
interference or CRISPR interference. These
techniques target and block specific messages
(mRNA) that tell the cell to make proteins from
those genes. As a result, the gene's activity is
reduced, leading to less protein production and a
decrease in its function.
 R E S E A R C H A P P R O A C H :N
E ES U R O P S Y C H O L O G IC A L T E S T IN G
Neuropsychological Testing
 a specialized form of assessment used to evaluate cognitive
 Involves:
function, behavior, and emotional functioning by examining an
individual's performance on a battery of standardized tests.
 These tests are designed to assess various domains of cognitive
function, including attention, memory, language, executive
function, visuospatial abilities, and motor skills.
 Assessment Batteries: Tests are grouped into
comprehensive batteries focusing on specific cognitive
areas, assessing various functions and behaviors.
 Administration: Tests are conducted by trained
professionals in controlled environments, following
standardized procedures for consistency.
 Test Formats: Tests come in different formats (e.g.,
paper-and-pencil, computerized) requiring verbal or
non-verbal responses.
 Interpretation: Results are compared to normative
data to assess performance relative to expected ranges.
 Clinical Application: Used in clinical settings to
evaluate cognitive function in individuals with
neurological conditions, aiding diagnosis, treatment
planning, and outcome evaluation.
 Research: Employed in research to investigate
cognitive function in healthy and clinical populations,
exploring mechanisms, biomarkers, and intervention
efficacy.
GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR: HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
 Genes and environment work together in a dynamic interplay to
influence behavior. Genes provide the fundamental biological
blueprint that lays the foundation for various aspects of behavior,
personality, and cognitive traits. However, environmental factors
play a crucial role in determining how these genetic
predispositions are expressed and manifested in behavior.
 Environmental influences encompass a wide range of factors,
including upbringing, family dynamics, socioeconomic status,
cultural norms, peer interactions, educational opportunities, and
life experiences. These environmental factors can modify gene
expression patterns and affect the development and expression of
behavioral traits.
Conceptualized by two main frameworks:
 Gene-Environment Correlation (rGE)
 suggests that individuals actively shape their environments based on their
genetic predispositions.
 Passive: parents provide both genes and environments that influence their
child's behavior
 Evocative: correlation occurs when an individual's genetic traits evoke
certain responses or experiences from others in their environment
 Active: the individual's active selection of environments that are consistent
with their genetic predispositions
 Gene-Environment Interaction (GxE):
 emphasizes how genetic susceptibility interacts with environmental factors to
influence behavior.
 the effects of genetic variations on behavior are moderated by environmental
conditions.
 For example, individuals with a genetic predisposition for aggression may
exhibit more aggressive behavior when exposed to stressful or violent
environments, whereas the same genetic predisposition may have minimal
impact in a nurturing and supportive environment.
GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR: POSSIBLE
MODIFICATIONS
Possible Modifications
 Epigenetics involves changes in gene expression that occur without altering the underlying DNA sequence. These changes are
mediated by chemical modifications to DNA or histone proteins, which can affect how genes are "read" and expressed by the
cell.
 Two primary mechanisms include:
 DNA methylation
 Histone modifications

 Environmental factors, such as diet, stress, exposure to toxins, social interactions, and early-life experiences, can influence
epigenetic modifications.
 Epigenetic mechanisms provide a molecular link between environmental experiences and changes in gene expression and
behavior.
 By modifying epigenetic marks, environmental factors can influence how genetic predispositions are expressed and
manifested in behavior.
GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR: HOW GENES AFFECT
BEHAVIOR
Genes Associated with Behavior
 Some genes have been found to be linked to specific
behaviors, such as aggression, intelligence, or personality traits
 For instance, the MAOA gene has been associated with
aggression and impulsivity. Variations in this gene can affect
the production of an enzyme that breaks down
neurotransmitters involved in mood regulation, potentially
influencing behavior. Similarly, the BDNF gene (brain-derived
neurotrophic factor) is involved in the growth and maintenance
of neurons in the brain, and variations in this gene have been
linked to learning and memory abilities.
Complexity of Gene-Behavior Relationships
 Gene-behavior relationships are not straightforward and are
influenced by various factors.
 Genetic variability, including differences in gene sequences
among individuals, can contribute to differences in behavior.
 Additionally, gene expression patterns, which determine when
and how genes are activated, play a role in shaping behavior.
Moreover, the environmental context in which genes operate
can significantly influence their effects on behavior .
GENETICS OF BEHAVIOR: HOW GENES AFFECT
BEHAVIOR

Considerations in Identifying Specific Genes

 Identifying specific genes associated with behavior requires taking into account various factors.
 Gene-gene interactions, where the effects of one gene depend on the presence of another gene, can complicate the
relationship between genes and behavior.
 Gene-environment interactions, where environmental factors modify the effects of genes on behavior, further add to this
complexity.
 Additionally, gene-environment correlations, where genetic factors influence exposure to certain environments, can affect how
genes are expressed in behavior.
WHY NONHUMAN ANIMALS
ARE STUDIED IN
PSYCHOLOGY
 Humans share common ancestry with the species most commonly studied in psychology: mice, rats,
monkeys. To be sure, each species has its own specializations that enable it to fit into its unique
ecological niche; but common ancestry results in structural (e.g., brain) and functional (e.g., memory)
processes that are remarkably similar between humans and nonhumans.
WEIGHING HARM AND
BENEFIT
 Researchers who study nonhumans recognize that their studies may involve
certain harms that can range from the relatively minor (e.g., drawing a blood
sample) to the more serious (e.g., neurosurgery).
 Still, some harms will remain, and ethically, one must weigh those harms against
the potential benefits (for humans and for the animals themselves) to be obtained
from the research. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms
to humans of not doing the research.
For example, without any animal research, effective treatments for human
conditions like Alzheimer’s disease may very well be found, but it would certainly
take decades longer to find them, and in the meantime, millions and millions of
additional people would suffer.
REGULATIONS FOR ANIMAL
RESEARCH
 it’s important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated
by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the
landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. Oversight and inspection of facilities is
provided by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and, at the local level by Institutional Animal
Care and Use Committees (IACUCs).
 Animal research continues to play a vital role in psychology, enabling discoveries of
basic psychological and physiological processes that are important for living healthy
lives. You can learn more about some of this research, as well as the ethical and
regulatory issues that are involved, by consulting online resources such as Speaking of
Research.
CONCLUSION
 Understanding the mind-brain relationship is crucial because it reveals the complex interactions between
mental experiences and brain functions.
 While the mind uses the brain and vice versa, it also shapes and changes the brain through experience.
This emphasizes the freedom that individuals have in molding their beliefs and actions.
 Genetic studies show how biological variables influence behavior, emphasizing the intricate interplay of
genes, hormones, and the neurological system.
 Techniques like neuroimaging provide insights into brain function, while animal studies offer valuable
models for understanding human behavior.
 Despite ethical considerations, animal research remains essential for advancing our understanding of
psychological and physiological processes.
 Overall, integrating knowledge from various research approaches deepens our understanding of the mind-
brain relationship and its implications for human health and behavior.