CCNA1-CH8 - Network Layer

THE OSI NETWORK
LAYER
NETWORK
LAYER
 Layer 3 uses three basic processes:
 Encapsulation , decapsulation.
 Addressing.
 Routing and switching to the right port.
IPv4
2
TWO ADDRESS TYPES
Each device has two addresses.
• Layer 2 / MAC address:
• Physical Burned in to the NIC

• Doesn’t change , but can be spoofed ..later !
• Is the device real identity.
• Layer 3 / Network “protocol” Address:
• Logical address of the host.

• It can be set via software “O.S.”
• Assigned by network administrator
• The device mailing address.
• Need to be changed when the device is moved to
another network.
Encapsulation
 The segment is encapsulated to be a packet “network layer header is added including IP addresses” .
 The packet is sent down to the Data Link layer to be prepared for transportation over the media after
being encapsulated as a frame.
4
EACH HOST HAS TWO
ADDRESSES
IP Addresses are divided into a 2

level hierarchy – Network and Host.
• Logical (IP):
• The logical address uniquely identifies the host and the network to which it belongs at Layer 3.
• Routers base their decisions on the NETWORK PORTION of the destination IP address when
determining the best path for the packet.
ADDRESSIN
G
• Unique addressed Addresses enable devices to reach each
other…
192.168.100.99 172.16.3.10
Source IP = 192.168.100.99
Destination IP = 172.16.3.10
EACH HOST HAS TWO ADDRESSES
• Physical (MAC):
• The physical address uniquely identifies the host from all other
hosts all over the network at Layer 2. “ who is next address”
DECAPSULATION
Is the Destination IP
Address of this packet
my IP Address?
Destination
• Arrival packet processed at Layer 3.

• Destination address examined.
• If the address is correct , segment is passed up to the appropriate
8
service at Transport layer.
ROUTIN
G
The routing protocols configured on the routers and the destination IP
address are used to route the packet to the destinations .
 Routers examine Layer 3 Destination IP addresses to forward packets.

 Search their routing tables for the proper exit “path” to the next-hop
router if any.
 If a match is not found the router will search for a default route.
 The router “switch” and send the packets to it.
 If no default route is found a packet is discarded.
 Each router the packet pass through to reach the destination is called
a hop.
Source IP = 192.168.100.99 Destination IP = 172.16.3.10
192.168.100.99 172.16.3.10
9
NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS
• The Internet Protocol (IPv4 and IPv6) is the most widely-used Layer 3 data
carrying protocol and will be the focus of this course.
• Internet Protocol “IP” is a low overhead connectionless protocol that was not
designed to track and manage the flow of packets like “TCP” , only route data.
• It doesn’t notify or communicate with the other side prior sending data.
• It doesn’t perform three way handshaking.
• It depends on the transport layer TCP protocol to correct the order of packets
if received wrong.
• It depends on the application if the UDP is used.
10
IP IS A BEST EFFORT SERVICE
(UNRELIABLE)
• (IP) is Unreliable : “No acknowledgment”
• Does not recover undelivered or corrupt packets and leave it to end-

to-end TCP or to the application layer if UDP is used.
• IP uses “ Speed over reliability”.

11
MEDIA INDEPENDENT
• Transport of IP packets is not limited to any particular medium (Wired or Wireless).
• Data Link layer and not the network layer prepares the IP packet for transmission over
the communications medium. 12
FRAGMENTATION
• The Data Link layer passes the MTU upward to the network layer which
determines then how large to create the packets.
• In some cases, an intermediary device - usually a router - will need to split up

“fragment” a packet when forwarding it from one media to a media with a
smaller MTU. This process is called packet fragmentation.
• Copper Ethernet: MTU = 1,518 bytes.
• Copper Serial: Frame Relay MTU = 520 bytes.
• Optical Fiber: ATM MTU = 17,966 bytes.
• Wireless: 802.11 MTU = 2272 bytes.
IP
FRAGMENTATION
Original IP
IP Data = 1480 bytes
Packet
IP Header = 20 bytes
IP Data = 500
IP Packet
Fragments
IP Data = 500
IP Data = 480
L2 Data = 520 L2 This packet is too big to go

over my serial link all at once. I
L2 Data = 520 L2 need to break it into smaller
fragments
L2 Data = 500 L2
• A router may have to fragment a packet when forwarding it from one medium to another medium that
has a smaller MTU.
14
• If Don’t Fragment flag set, it will not fragment packet, but discard it.
IP FRAGMENTATION
The outgoing link has a The outgoing link has a It is my job to
smaller MTU so I have to large enough MTU but I reconstruct the packets.
fragment the packets. don’t reconstruct
packets. IP Packet
IP Packet IP
PacketIP
PacketIP
Packet
Network link with Network link with
larger MTU smaller MTU Network link with larger MTU
IP Packet IP Packet
IP Packet IP Packet
IP Packet IP Packet
• When fragmentation occurs, it does not get reconstructed until it reaches the host.
• This takes processing time.
15
• Fragment Offset field identifies the order.
IP HEADER
Where I came
from.
Where I am
going.
• IP Destination Address
• 32-bit binary value that represents the packet destination Network layer host address.
• IP Source Address
• 32-bit binary value that represents the packet source Network layer host address.
16
IP’s TTL – Time To Live field
Decrement by 1, if
.0 drop the packet
• Decremented by each router.

• If the router decrements the TTL field to 0, it will then drop the packet and sends an Internet Control
Message Protocol (ICMP) Time Exceeded message to the source IP address. The Traceroute command
uses this field to identify the path.
• (unless the packet is destined specifically for the router, I.e. ping, telnet, etc.).
• What is the advantage to decrementing the TTL by each router and dropping the packet if it is 0?
• So IP packets can not travel around the Internet forever, from router to router. 17
IP’S PROTOCOL FIELD
Protocol = 06 TCP
• Protocol field enables the Network layer to pass the data to the appropriate upper-layer protocol.
• Example values are:
• 01 ICMP
• 06 TCP
18
• 17 UDP
IP’S TOS
FIELD
• Differentiated service is used by router to determine (QoS) priority of each packet. It contains six bits
Differentiated service code point used for QOS and two bits that are used for Explicit congestion
notification.
 Host and network devices priorities should be configured to perform that.
• VoIP
• Streaming video
19
Fragment Offset and flags
• Fragment offset - Identifies the order of packet fragments for reconstruction.

• The More Fragments (MF) flag - a single bit in the Flag field
• An unfragmented packet has all zero fragmentation information (MF = 0, fragment offset =0).
• Don't Fragment (DF) flag - a single bit in the Flag field that indicates that fragmentation of the packet
is not allowed.
• A non zero fragment offset with more fragment equals to zero means that this is the last fragment.
20
OTHER IPV4
FIELDS
• Version - IP version number (4).

• Header Length (IHL) - Might vary depending on the options “ Number of 32 bit words” minimum is 5
and the maximum is 15
• Packet Length - Entire header and data size, in bytes. (Minimum size is 20 ).
• Identification - Identifying fragments of a packet from fragments of another packet.
• Header Checksum - Used for packet header error checking at each hop (Data not included here).
• Options - There is provision for additional fields in the IPv4 header to provide other services but these
are rarely used. 21
IPV6
• IPv6 overcomes the limitations and provides the following improvements:

• Increased address space
• Improved packet handling
• Eliminates the need for NAT
• Integrated security
INCREASED ADDRESS SPACE
• The 32-bit IPv4 address space provides approximately 4,294,967,296 unique addresses.
• Of these, only 3.7 billion addresses are assignable, because the IPv4 addressing system
separates the addresses into classes, and reserves addresses for multicasting, testing, and
other specific uses.
• IPv6 addresses are based on 128-bit hierarchical addressing as opposed to IPv4 with 32 bits.
• 340 undecillion addresses
• This dramatically increases the number of available IP addresses.
INCREASED ADDRESS SPACE
Scientific
Number name Number of zeros
Notation
Thousand 1 10
3
1,000
6
Million 1 10 1,000,000
9
Billion 1 10 1,000,000,000 There are 4 billion
IPv4 addresses
12
Trillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000
15
Quadrillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000
18
Quintillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000
21
Sextillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
24
Septillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
27
Octillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
30
Nonillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
33
Decillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
36 There are 340

Undecillion 1 10 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
undecillion IPv6
addresses
• 50 billion billion billion addresses for every person on earth

DO WE NEED THIS MANY ADDRESSES?
IMPROVED
PACKET
HANDLING
• The IPv6 header has been simplified with fewer fields.

• Easier packet handling by routers with options available for more scalability.
SAMPLE IPV4 PACKET
Version Traffic Class Flow Label
Next
Payload Length Hop Limit
Header
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
Version
Version(4(4bits)
bits)
–– Indicates the version of IP currently used.
Indicates the version of IP currently used.
–– 0100 = 4 and therefore IPv4
0100 = 4 and therefore IPv4
–– 0110 = 6 and therefore IPv6
0110 = 6 and therefore IPv6
Next
Header
Source IP Address
Traffic
TrafficClass
Class(8(8bits)
bits)
–– Field is equivalent to the IPv4
Field is equivalent to the IPv4
Differentiated
DifferentiatedServices
Services(DS)
(DS)
field.
field.
–– It also contains a 6-bit DSCP
It also contains a 6-bit DSCP
value
valueused
usedfor
forQoS
QoSand
andaa2-bit
2-bit
ECN used for traffic congestion
ECN used for traffic congestion
control.
control.
Next
Header
Source IP Address
Flow
FlowLabel
Label(20
(20bits)
bits)
–– Field provides a special service
Field provides a special service
for
forreal-time
real-timeapplications.
applications.
–– It can be used to inform routers
It can be used to inform routers
and
andswitches
switchestotomaintain
maintainthethe
same
same path for the packet flowso
path for the packet flow so
that packets are not reordered.
that packets are not reordered.
Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit
Source IP Address
Payload
PayloadLength
Length(16
(16bits)
bits)
–– Field is equivalent to the Total Length field in the
Field is equivalent to the Total Length field in the
IPv4
IPv4header.
header.
–– It defines the entire packet (fragment) size, including
It defines the entire packet (fragment) size, including
header
headerandandoptional
optionalextensions
extensions
Next
Header
Source IP Address
Next
NextHeader
Header(8(8bits)
bits)
–– Field is equivalent to the IPv4 Protocol field.
Field is equivalent to the IPv4 Protocol field.
–– It indicates the data payload type that the packet is
It indicates the data payload type that the packet is
carrying,
carrying,enabling
enablingthe
thenetwork
networklayer
layertotopass
passthe
thedata
data
totothe appropriate upper-layer protocol.
the appropriate upper-layer protocol.
–– This field is also used if there are optional extension
This field is also used if there are optional extension
headers
headersadded
addedtotothe
theIPv6
IPv6packet.
packet.
Next
Header
Source IP Address
Hop
HopLimit
Limit(8(8bits)
bits)
–– Field replaces the IPv4 TTL field.
Field replaces the IPv4 TTL field.
–– This value is decremented by one by each router
This value is decremented by one by each router
that
thatforwards
forwardsthe thepacket.
packet.
–– When the counter reaches 0 the packet is discarded
When the counter reaches 0 the packet is discarded
and
andananICMPv6
ICMPv6message
messageisisforwarded
forwardedtotothe
thesending
sending
host, indicating that the packet did not reach its
host, indicating that the packet did not reach its
destination.
destination.
Next
Header
Source IP Address
Source
SourceAddress
Address(128
(128bits)
bits)
–– Field identifies the IPv6 address of the
Field identifies the IPv6 address of the
sending
sendinghost.
host.
Next
Header
Source IP Address
Destination
DestinationAddress
Address(128
(128bits)
bits)
–– Field identifies the IPv6 address of the
Field identifies the IPv6 address of the
receiving
receivinghost.
host.
SAMPLE IPV6 HEADERS
SAMPLE IPV6 HEADERS
ELIMINATES THE NEED FOR NAT
• With such a large number of public IPv6 addresses,

Network Address Translation (NAT) is not needed.
• Customer sites, from the largest enterprises to single
households, can get a public IPv6 network address.
• This avoids some of the NAT-induced application problems
experienced by applications requiring end-to-end
connectivity.
Integrated Security
 IPv6 natively supports authentication and
privacy capabilities.
 With IPv4, additional features had to be

implemented to do this.
ROUTING
HOST CAN SEND A PACKET TO ITSELF
• The IP address 127.0.0.1 is a loopback interface that is automatically assigned to a TCP/IP host.
• Any IP address within the network 127.0.0.0/8 refers to the local host.
• Used by the host different application to communicate with each other.
• Useful for testing purposes.
C:\Users\Admin> ping 127.0.0.1
Pinging 127.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:

Reply from 127.0.0.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=128
Ping statistics for 127.0.0.1:

Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
C:\Users\Admin>
40
HOST CAN SEND A PACKET TO A LOCAL HOST
Hosts are on the same network : sending host and receiving host share the same network address.
• PC1 (192.168.10.10 /24) sends a packet to PC2 (192.168.10.11 /24)

• Since they are both on the same network (192.168.10.x /24) the services of a default gateway
are not required.
10.
PC1 192.168.10.0/24
1.
11. G0/0
PC2
R1
10. G0/1
PC3 1.
41
11. 192.168.11.0/24
PC4
HOST CAN SEND A PACKET TO A REMOTE HOST
 When a host on a remote network, the hosts do not share the same network address.
• A default gateway IP address is required.
 PC1 (192.168.10.10 /24) sends a packet to PC4 (192.168.11.11 /24)

• Since they are on different networks (192.168.10.x /24 and 192.168.11.x /24) the
services of a default gateway is required.
10.
PC1 192.168.10.0/24
1.
11. G0/0
PC2
R1
10. G0/1
PC3 1.
11. 192.168.11.0/24
PC4
42
HOST CAN SEND A PACKET TO A REMOTE HOST
• The default gateway is the device (i.e, router) that routes traffic from the local network to remote
networks.
• A host sending a packet to a remote host does not maintain routing information beyond the
local network.
• The default gateway maintains a routing table containing directly connected and remote
network route information.
10.
PC1 192.168.10.0/24
1.
11. G0/0
PC2
R1
10. G0/1
PC3 1.
11. 192.168.11.0/24
PC4
43
DEFAULT GATEWAY
 Hosts doesn’t know the address of every device on the Internet it might communicate to.
 When a host needs to communicate with another network, an intermediary device, or router, acts as a
gateway to the other network.
 Each host contain a routing table that contains at the minimum a “gateway”.
 The default gateway IP address is typically a host IP address “router” which is on the same network as the
host itself which is used to forward packets out of the network.
• The host only has to be aware of:
• Its own network address
• Default gateway IP address to reach all devices outside its own network
HOST ROUTING
TABLE
netstat –r
Or route print
You can use the

following options for
the route command to
modify the routing
table contents:
route ADD ,route DELETE

, route CHANGE
• Host routing table usually only contains:

• Its own network address (directly connected network)
• Default gateway IP address
• Hosts usually do not have remote networks in their routing tables
• The router also needs a routing table that defines where to forward the packet next. This is called the next-hop address or default route.
45
SUBNET
MASK
”.A host on the 192.168.1.0/24 network
• When the host is to send data , it uses the subnet mask to check if the destination packet is on the same
network.
• So, it knows whether to encapsulate the IP packet into an Ethernet frame with:
• The Destination MAC Address of the default gateway

• Must know the default gateway’s IP address , using ARP it will get the MAC
46
• The Destination MAC Address of the host with the Destination IP address of the packet.
IP ADDRESSES – FIRST LOOK
Network Address 172.16.0.0
172.16.10.100/16
Network Address
192.168.1.0/30
172.16.10.55/16
ISP
Internet
192.168.1.2/30
172.16.1.1/16
192.168.1.1/30 172.16.10.3/16
47
IP ADDRESSES – FIRST
LOOK
Network Address 172.16.0.0
172.16.10.100/16 Gateway: 172.16.1.1
Network Address
192.168.1.0/30
172.16.10.55/16
ISP Gateway: 172.16.1.1
Internet
192.168.1.2/30
172.16.1.1/16
192.168.1.1/30 172.16.10.3/16 Gateway: 172.16.1.1
• All hosts in the same network will typically have the same default gateway IP address.
• The ipconfig or ifconfig commands at the command line are used in windows and Linux . 48
DEFAULT GATEWAY
49
CONFIGURING DEFAULT GATEWAY ON HOSTS
• The default gateway address can be configured on the host manually or learned dynamically.
50
DEFAULT GATEWAY – IPCONFIG
C:\Users\Admin>ipconfig
Windows IP Configuration
Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:
Connection-specific DNS Suffix . : cisco.com

Link-local IPv6 Address . . . . . : fe80::b572:c6c:f983:cadc%11
IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.11.99
Subnet Mask . . . . . . . . . . . : 255.255.255.0
Default Gateway . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.11.1
C:\Users\Admin>
51
HOST ROUTING TABLE
C:\Users\PC1> netstat -r
<Output omitted>
IPv4 Route Table

=========================================================
Active Routes:
• Every host on the network has its own routing table.

• The local routing table of the host typically contains:
• Direct connection - A route to the loopback interface (127.0.0.1) ( To it self).
• Local network route - The host’s network IP address.
• Local default route - The default route which is the IP address of the network interface of
the router that is connected to the local network.
• The route print or netstat -r command can be used to display the host routing
table on a Windows host.
52
Lists reachable networks
NETSTAT IPV4 INFORMATION
Lists a subnet mask used by the host to
determine the network / host portions of the IP
address.
Lists the address to get to a remote network. A
directly reachable destination displays “On-link”.
Lists the address of the physical interface used to

send the packet to the gateway.
Lists the cost of each route and is used to
determine the best route to a destination.
<Output omitted>
IPv4 Route Table

===========================================================================
Active Routes:
Network Destination Netmask Gateway Interface Metric
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.10 25
127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.10 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
===========================================================================
<Output omitted> 53
0.0.0.0
• This is the local default route.
• Forwards all non-matching packets.
NETSTAT IPV4 INFORMATION • All non-matching destination routes are sent to 192.168.10.1
(R1) exiting from the interface with IP address 192.168.10.10.
127.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255
• These loopback addresses all relate to the direct connection
and provide services to the local host.
192.168.10.0 - 192.168.10.255
• These addresses all relate to the host and local network.
• 192.168.10.0 - The local network route address.
C:\Users\PC1> netstat -r • 192.168.10.10 - The address of the local host.
• 192.168.10.255 - The network broadcast address.
<Output omitted>
224.0.0.0
IPv4 Route Table • Special multicast addresses reserved for use through either
the loopback interface or the host IP address.
===========================================================================
Active Routes:
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.10 25
127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.10 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
===========================================================================
255.255.255.255
<Output omitted> • Limited broadcast IP address values for use through
54 either the
loopback interface or the host IP address.
PC1 wants to ping PC2.
Which route will be chosen?
<Output omitted>
IPv4 Route Table

===========================================================================
Active Routes:
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.10 25
127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.10 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
===========================================================================
<Output omitted> 55
PC1 wants to ping 10.10.10.10.
Which route will be chosen?
<Output omitted>
IPv4 Route Table

===========================================================================
Active Routes:
0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.10 25
127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.0.0.1 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
127.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
192.168.10.0 255.255.255.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.10 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
192.168.10.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
224.0.0.0 240.0.0.0 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 127.0.0.1 306
255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 On-link 192.168.10.10 281
===========================================================================
<Output omitted> 56
Lists the address of the physical
interface used to send the packet to
the gateway.
Lists the cost of each route and is

used to determine the best route to a
destination.
C:\Users\PC1> netstat -r Lists reachable networks

<Output omitted>
IPv6 Route Table Lists the address to get to a remote
===================================================== network. A directly reachable
Active Routes: destination displays “On-link”.
If Metric Network Destination Gateway
16 58 ::/0 On-link
1 306 ::1/128 On-link
16 58 2001::/32 On-link
16 306 2001:0:9d38:953c:2c30:3071:e718:a926/128
On-link
15 281 fe80::/64 On-link
Note: Interfaces in IPv6
16 306 fe80::/64 On-link commonly have two IPv6
16 306 fe80::2c30:3071:e718:a926/128 addresses: a link local
On-link
15 281 fe80::b1ee:c4ae:a117:271f/128
address and a global unicast
On-link address. Also, notice that
1 306 ff00::/8 On-link there are no broadcast
16 306 ff00::/8 On-link
15 281 ff00::/8 On-link
addresses in IPv6. IPv6
===================================================== addresses will be discussed
<Output omitted> further in the next chapter.
57
::/0
• This is the IPv6 equivalent of the local
default route.
::1/128
<Output omitted>
• This is equivalent to the IPv4 loopback
IPv6 Route Table address and provides services to the local
===================================================== host.
Active Routes:
If Metric Network Destination Gateway 2001:: Global Unicast Addresses
16 58 ::/0 On-link • 2001::/32 - This is the global unicast
1 306 ::1/128 On-link network prefix.
16 58 2001::/32 On-link • •2001:0:9d38:953c:2c30:3071:e718:a926/1
16 306 2001:0:9d38:953c:2c30:3071:e718:a926/128 28 - This is the global unicast IPv6 address
On-link of the local computer.
15 281 fe80::/64 On-link
fe80:: Link Local Addresses
16 306 fe80::/64 On-link • fe80::/64 - This is the local link network
16 306 fe80::2c30:3071:e718:a926/128 route address and represents all computers
On-link on the local link IPv6 network.
15 281 fe80::b1ee:c4ae:a117:271f/128 • fe80::2c30:3071:e718:a926/128 - This is
On-link the link local IPv6 address of the local
1 306 ff00::/8 On-link computer.
16 306 ff00::/8 On-link
15 281 ff00::/8 On-link ff00::/8 Multicast Addresses
===================================================== • These are special reserved multicast class
D addresses equivalent to the IPv4
<Output omitted> 58
224.x.x.x addresses.
S1# show running-config
Building configuration...
DEFAULT GATEWAY ON A SWITCH !
<output omitted>
service password-encryption
!
hostname S1
!
Interface Vlan1
ip address 192.168.10.5
!
ip default-gateway 192.168.10.1
<output omitted>
10.
PC1 192.168.10.0/24 192.168.11.0/24
1. 1.
G0/0 R1 G0/1 S2
S1
11. 5.
PC2
• A switch must (should) also be configured with a default gateway address, because packets
that originate from the switch are handled just like packets that originate from a host device.
• This is not used by normal user frames! 59
• Use the ip default-gateway global config command.
DEFAULT GATEWAY ON A SWITCH
• For example, the administrator wants to Telnet to the S1.

• Without the default gateway configured on S1, packets from S1 would not be able to
reach the administrator at 192.168.11.10. S1# show running-config
Building configuration...
!
<output omitted>
service password-encryption
!
hostname S1
!
Interface Vlan1
ip address 192.168.10.5
!
ip default-gateway 192.168.10.1
<output omitted>
10.
PC1 192.168.10.0/24 192.168.11.0/24
1. 1.
S1 G0/0 R1 G0/1 S2
11. 5.
PC2
60
ROUTER ROUTING TABLES
PACKET
FORWARDING
• Routing is done packet-by-packet and hop-by-hop.
• At each hop, the router examines the destination IP address for each packet and then checks the
routing table for forwarding information
• The router will do one of 3 things with the packet: Forward it to the default route “gateway” ,
Forward it to the destination host or Drop it
62
ROUTING IP PACKETS
 A router goal is to forward a packet destined to outside the network to its correct
destination!
 To do so, a router keeps track of local and remote networks.
 This information is stored in a routing table.
63
ROUTING IP PACKETS
64
ROUTER OPERATIONAL GOAL
• Once a router receives a frame …
• Check the packet checksum

• De-capsulates the data link header.
• Examines the IP address to determine the destination network.
• Consults its routing tables to determine which of its interfaces it will use to send
the frame.
• It encapsulates the frame and forwards it after adding the new checksum.
65
ROUTING IP PACKETS
66
ROUTING IP PACKETS
67
ROUTING IP PACKETS
68
ROUTING IP PACKETS
69
ROUTING TABLE ROUTES
70
ROUTING TABLE ROUTES
• The routing table of a router stores information about:

• Directly-connected routes:
• These routes come from the active router interfaces.
• Routers Add a directly connected route when an interface is configured with an IP
address and is activated.
• Remote routes:
• These routes come from remote networks connected to other routers.
71
• Routes to these networks can either be manually configured or dynamically
learned using a dynamic routing protocol.
ROUTERS AND THE NETWORK LAYER
72
IPV4 ROUTER ROUTING TABLE
192.168.10.0/24 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route ( Used to check the routing table of the router)

Codes: L - local, C - connected, S - static, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
N1 - OSPF NSSA external type 1, N2 - OSPF NSSA external type 2
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, ia - IS-IS inter area
* - candidate default, U - per-user static route, o - ODR
P - periodic downloaded static route
Gateway of last resort is not set
10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
C 192.168.10.0/24 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
L 192.168.10.1/32 is directly connected, GigabitEthernet0/0
209.165.200.0/24 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 3 masks 73
C 209.165.200.224/30 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
L 209.165.200.225/32 is directly connected, Serial0/0/0
R1#
DIRECTLY CONNECTED INTERFACES
192.168.10.0/24
10. G0/0
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1.
225.
R1 S0/0/0
10. 1.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24
• Two routing table entries are automatically created when an active router interface is
configured with an IP address and subnet mask.
• C:
• Identifies a directly connected network.
• Directly connected networks are automatically created when an interface is
configured with an IP address and activated.
• L: Appeared in I.O.S (15) and might not appear before
• Identifies that this is a local route, the IP address of the interface.
• Local routes are automatically created when an interface is configured with an IP
address and activated. 74
DIRECTLY CONNECTED ROUTING TABLE ENTRIES
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24

10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
A B C
A .Identifies how the network was learned by the router

B .Identifies the destination network and how it is connected
C .Identifies the interface on the router connected to the destination network
75
REMOTE NETWORK ROUTING TABLE ENTRIES
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24

10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
A .Identifies how the network was learned by the router

B .Identifies the destination network
C .Identifies the administrative distance (trustworthiness) of the route source
D .Identifies the metric to reach the remote network
E .Identifies the next hop IP address to reach the remote network
F .Identifies the amount of elapsed time since the network was discovered
G .Identifies the outgoing interface on the router to reach the destination network
76
DESTINATION NETWORK
192.168.10.0/24 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
R1# 77
NEXT-HOP ADDRESS
192.168.10.0/24 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
R1#
PC1 wants to ping another host PC1 wants to ping R1 G0/0.1
on the same network.
WHICH ROUTE?
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
R1#
PC1 wants to ping PC2
WHICH ROUTE?
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
R1#
PC1 wants to ping the R2 WAN
Interface
WHICH ROUTE?
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
R1#
PC1 wants to ping 10.1.1.10
WHICH ROUTE?
192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24
10. G0/0 10.
PC1 30/ 209.165.200.224
1. 1.
225. 226.
R1 S0/0/0 R2
10. 1. 1. 10.
PC2 G0/1
192.168.11.0/24 10.1.2.0/24
R1#show ip route

D 10.1.1.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
D 10.1.2.0/24 [90/2170112] via 209.165.200.226, 00:00:05, Serial0/0/0
R1#
MORE ROUTING
.…DETAILS
:The routing table stores three types of route entries

Directly-connected networks - These network route entries are active router interfaces. Routers add a •
directly connected route when an interface is configured with an IP address and is activated. Each
router interface is connected to a different network segment. In the figure, the directly-connected
.networks in the R1 IPv4 routing table would be 192.168.10.0/24 and 209.165.200.224/30
Remote networks - These network route entries are connected to other routers. Routers learn about •
remote networks either by being explicitly configured by an administrator or by exchanging route
information using a dynamic routing protocol. In the figure, the remote network in the R1 IPv4 routing
.table would be 10.1.1.0/24
Default route – Like a host, most routers also include a default route entry, a gateway of last resort. The •
default route is used when there is no better (longer) match in the IP routing table. In the figure, the R1
.IPv4 routing table would most likely include a default route to forward all packets to router R2
83
MORE ROUTING
.…DETAILS
Route information might be learned statically or dynamically.
• Static route
• Requires the administrator to have a good knowledge about how to reach all networks and/or
default route.
• Administrative cost - Manual configuration and maintenance of the routing table to ensure.
• If any network were modified , static routing requires the admin. to reconfigure the routing table.
• Dynamic routing – Using routing protocols “set of rules by which routers dynamically share their
routing information “.
• When a router receives information about new or changed routes, it updates its own routing table
and, in turn, passes the information to other routers.
84
INTRODUCTION TO ROUTING
DYNAMIC ROUTING
Static Route Characteristics:

• Must be configured manually
• Must be adjusted manually by the administrator when there is a change in the topology
• Good for small non-redundant networks
• Often used in conjunction with a dynamic routing protocol for configuring a default route
85
STATIC ROUTING
Dynamic Routes Automatically:

• Discover remote networks
• Maintain up-to-date information
• Choose the best path to the destination
• Find new best paths when there is a topology change
Dynamic routing can also share static default routes with the other routers.
 When a router is manually configured with a static route or learns about a

remote network dynamically using a dynamic routing protocol, the remote
network address and next hop address are entered into the IP routing table. As
shown in the figure, if there is a change in the network topology, the routers will
automatically adjust and attempt to find a new best path.
86
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
• Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

• Enhanced Interior Gateway Protocol (EIGRP)
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
• Some of the protocols do not understand classless IP
addresses , these are called classfull protocols as RIP V1
and IGRP.”Other are classless”
Costs of using routing protocols

 The exchange of dynamic route information adds overhead that consumes network bandwidth ..
 Routers employing these protocols must have sufficient processing capacity to both implement the
protocol's algorithms and to perform timely packet routing and forwarding
A QUICK LOOK AT ROUTING
ROUTING – FIRST
LOOK
Network 192.168.1.0/24
Network 192.168.2.0/24
192.168.1.254/24
C 192.168.2.0/24 is direction connected, FastEthernet0/1
Routers know about routes either statically or dynamically using a routing protocol:
• Directly connected networks (C):
• Network addresses of its interfaces
89
• Remote networks : learned by static or dynamic Routing Protocol (R = RIP)
ROUTING – FIRST
LOOK
Network 192.168.1.0/24
Network 192.168.2.0/24
192.168.1.254/24
C 192.168.2.0/24 is direction connected, FastEthernet0/1
• Routers know about:

• Directly connected networks (C):
• Network addresses of its interfaces
• When a router is configured with the IP address/mask on an interface the router knows that it
has an interface which is part of that network. 90
• This is just like a host that is configured with an IP address/mask. (coming)

ROUTE: A PATH TO A NETWORK
Destination
Network Next Hop
Metric
• Remote networks are networks not directly connected to the router (manual configuration or learned
dynamically).
ROUTING
TABLE
• The router matches the destination address in the packet header with the destination network of
a route in the routing table and forwards the packet to the next-hop router specified by that
route.
92
DESTINATION NETWORK - ROUTING TABLE ENTRIES
• The hierarchical nature of Layer 3 addressing means that…
• One route entry could refer to a large general network.

• Another entry could refer to a subnet of that same network.
• When forwarding a packet, the router will select the most specific route.
• The default route in a routing table performs as a default gateway in a PC.
• If a route for a packet cannot be found in the routing table, and a default route is present, that
route will be used to forward the packet.
• A next-hop is the address of the device that will process the packet next.
Destination
Network Next Hop
Metric
• Some routes can have multiple next-hops. This indicates that there are multiple paths to the same
destination network . The metric is used to decide which route appears on the routing table.
• If a packet arrives destined for 207.23.124.56, the router would check the table in the following
order:
• 10.0.0.0
• 10.1.1.0 Since the route doesn’t exist and a default
route is configured, the packet would be
• 10.1.0.0 forwarded to the next hop.
• 192.168.1.0
• 0.0.0.0
PACKET FORWARDING: ROUTE FOUND
Data for Host

10.1.2.2 / 24
L2 IP TCP DATA L2
Network 10.1.1.0
IP TCP DATA
Network 10.1.2.0
IP Address 10.1.2.2 is on
network 10.1.2.0
L2 IP TCP DATA L2
PACKET FORWARDING: DEFAULT ROUTE
Data for Host

207.1.1.1 / 24
L2 IP TCP DATA L2
Network 10.1.1.0
IP TCP DATA
Network 10.1.2.0
IP Address 207.1.1.1 is
on network 207.1.1.0
L2 IP TCP DATA L2
PACKET FORWARDING: ROUTE NOT FOUND
?
Data for Host
207.1.1.1 / 24
L2 IP TCP DATA L2
Network 10.1.1.0
IP TCP DATA
Network 10.1.2.0
IP Address 207.1.1.1 is
on network 207.1.1.0
A DAY IN THE LIFE OF A PACKET
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THE OSI NETWORK

 Layer 3 uses three basic processes:

• Layer 2 / MAC address:

• Physical Burned in to the NIC

• Layer 3 / Network “protocol” Address:

• Logical address of the host.

IP Addresses are divided into a 2

• Arrival packet processed at Layer 3.

 Routers examine Layer 3 Destination IP addresses to forward packets.

• (IP) is Unreliable : “No acknowledgment”

• Does not recover undelivered or corrupt packets and leave it to end-

• IP uses “ Speed over reliability”.

• Transport of IP packets is not limited to any particular medium (Wired or Wireless).

• In some cases, an intermediary device - usually a router - will need to split up

L2 Data = 520 L2 This packet is too big to go

• Decremented by each router.

• Fragment offset - Identifies the order of packet fragments for reconstruction.

• Version - IP version number (4).

• IPv6 overcomes the limitations and provides the following improvements:

36 There are 340

• 50 billion billion billion addresses for every person on earth

• The IPv6 header has been simplified with fewer fields.

Payload Length Next Header Hop Limit

• With such a large number of public IPv6 addresses,

 With IPv4, additional features had to be

Pinging 127.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:

Ping statistics for 127.0.0.1:

• PC1 (192.168.10.10 /24) sends a packet to PC2 (192.168.10.11 /24)

 PC1 (192.168.10.10 /24) sends a packet to PC4 (192.168.11.11 /24)

• The host only has to be aware of:

• Its own network address

You can use the

route ADD ,route DELETE

• Host routing table usually only contains:

”.A host on the 192.168.1.0/24 network

• The Destination MAC Address of the default gateway

Network Address 172.16.0.0

172.16.10.100/16 Gateway: 172.16.1.1

Ethernet adapter Local Area Connection:

Connection-specific DNS Suffix . : cisco.com

IPv4 Route Table

• Every host on the network has its own routing table.

Lists the address of the physical interface used to

IPv4 Route Table

IPv4 Route Table

IPv4 Route Table

Lists the cost of each route and is

C:\Users\PC1> netstat -r Lists reachable networks

• For example, the administrator wants to Telnet to the S1.

• Once a router receives a frame …

• Check the packet checksum

• The routing table of a router stores information about:

R1#show ip route ( Used to check the routing table of the router)

Gateway of last resort is not set

10.0.0.0/8 is variably subnetted, 2 subnets, 2 masks

192.168.10.0/24 64.100.0.1 10.1.1.0/24

A .Identifies how the network was learned by the router