Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of high-energy radiation by

an atom.
• It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.
• Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
• Its discovery showed that the atom had more subatomic particles and
energy associated with it.
Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by Ernest
Rutherford:
•  particles (positively charged)
•  particles (negatively charged, like electrons)
•  rays (uncharged)
(1) Which of the three kinds of radiation shown consists of electrons?

(1)

a. β
b. γ
c. α
d. (A) and (C)
(1) Which of the three kinds of radiation shown consists of electrons?

(1)

a. β
b. γ
c. α
d. (A) and (C)
(2) Why are these rays deflected to a greater extent than the others?

(2)

a. Beta particles are negatively charged.

b. Alpha particles are positively charged.
c. Alpha particles are less massive than beta particles.
d. Beta particles are less massive than alpha particles.
Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford
shot  particles at
a thin sheet of gold
foil and observed
the pattern of
scatter of the
particles.
Structure of the Atom: The Proton & Nucleus

Rutherford’s experiment for measuring scattering of a

particles by a thin metal foil:
a Rutherford used a particles to probe atomic structure.

Thin gold and other metal foils served as targets for a

a particles. See the illustration below
E. Rutherford Most of the a particles penetrated the metal foils with little or
(1871-1937) a no deflection. However, an a particle would be deflected at a
large angle or back toward the source!
 QUICK TIME
VIDEO
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

a particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus

2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g)
Structure of the Atom: The Proton & Nucleus

Rutherford formulated his model of the atom, based on

the results of his a-scattering experiments:
Mostly empty space, which would explain why most a
a particles passed through the foil undetected.

Atom’s positive charges concentrated in the nucleus, a dense

a central core within the atom. This would explain why those a
E. Rutherford
(1871-1937) particles that came near or directly at the nucleus experienced
large deflections or reversed directions (repulsion of positive
charge by positive charge).

We now know these positively charged particles in the

nucleus as protons:
Mass of proton = 1.67262 x 10-24 g -- about 1840 x the mass of
a an electron.

Typical atomic radius is about 100 pm (pm = picometers).

a Radius of atomic nucleus ONLY about 5 x 10-3 pm
What is the charge on the particles that form
the beam?

a. –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.

b. +2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
c. +1, because the beam consists of beta particles.
d. –2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
What is the charge on the particles that form
the beam?

a. –1, because the beam consists of beta particles.

b. +2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
c. +1, because the beam consists of beta particles.
d. –2, because the beam consists of alpha particles.
 The Nuclear Atom
• Rutherford postulated a very
small, dense nucleus with
the electrons around the
outside of the atom.
• Most of the volume is empty
space.
• Atoms are very small; 1 – 5
Å or 100 – 500 pm.
• Other subatomic particles
(protons and neutrons) were
discovered.
What is the approximate diameter of the nucleus in units of pm?

a. 100 pm
b. 1 pm
c. 10–2 pm
d. 10–4 pm
What is the approximate diameter of the nucleus in units of pm?

a. 100 pm
b. 1 pm
c. 10–2 pm
d. 10–4 pm
Structure of the Atom: The Neutron

I gave the name neutrons to the subatomic particles that

comprised the high-energy radiation given off by the Be
metal.

A neutron is an electrically neutral particle with a mass

of 1.67493 x 10-24 g -- just slightly larger than the mass of the
positive proton (1.67262 x 10-24 g).

p
proton (p)
e- p
e-
e-
H neutron (n)
relative mass = 1
n He relative mass = 4
Subatomic Particles
• Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge;
neutrons are neutral.
• Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass
(relative mass 1). The mass of an electron is so small
we ignore it (relative mass 0).
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus;
electrons travel around the nucleus.
Atomic Mass
• Atoms have extremely small masses.
• The heaviest known atoms have a mass of
approximately 4 × 10–22 g.
• A mass scale on the atomic level is used, where
an atomic mass unit (amu) is the base unit.
1 amu = 1.66054 × 10–24 g
Atomic Weight Measurement
• Atomic and molecular weight can be measured with great
accuracy using a mass spectrometer.
• Masses of atoms are compared to the carbon atom with 6
protons and 6 neutrons (C-12).
Symbols of Elements

Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol. This is

the symbol for carbon.
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons,
which is called the atomic number, Z. It is written as a subscript
BEFORE the symbol.
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom. It is written as a superscript BEFORE the
symbol.
Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
different masses.
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons, but
the same number of protons.
 ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

O The number of
protons
in the nucleus of an atom
of each element

16 In a neutral atom:

# of protons = # of electrons

The element considered above is oxygen. How many protons

does a neutral oxygen atom contain? How many electrons?
Where are the protons located in the oxygen atom?
 ATOMIC MASS

8 Mass Number (A)

O The total number of

protons + neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom
of each element

16 In a neutral atom:

mass number =
Where are neutrons located? # of protons + # of neutrons
What is their charge?
A = Z + # neutrons
 Atoms that have the
same atomic number
Isotopes but different mass
numbers

mass number = A element symbol

A

atomic number = X The accepted format for writing

Z Z an isotope

1 2 3
3 Isotopes
of H H H
1 1 1
Hydrogen
hydrogen deuterium tritium
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons in the nucleus

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number

Or it can be written as X—A ex) Sr-90

1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U
Try these isotopes! Determine: (a) no. of protons; (b) no. of neutrons;
(c) no. of electrons.
235 238
U U
92 92

58 231
Fe Th
26 90

65 130
Cu I
29 53
 Do You Understand Isotopes?

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 146 C?

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 116 C?