Biology Unit 2

VARIATION
• Intraspecific – variation within a species
• Interspecific – variation between diff. species

• SAMPLING
- sampling bias + chance make
unrepresentative
- avoid this by large sample size, and estimating
by analysing data how much data is affected by
chance
 DNA AND MEIOSIS
• DNA Structure
- Nucelotide (deoxyribose sugar + phosphate group +
organic base in condensation reaction)
- DNA is 2 strands of nucleotides called
polynucleotides
- 2 polynucleotides joined together by hydrogen
bonds between complimentary bases
- A+T+2 H BONDS
- G+C+3 H BONDS
- rounded = C(bump)+G(moon)
- angular = A (ribbon)+T(arrow)
• 2 polynucleotides are twisted to form double helix
Proving DNA is hereditary material
• Mice
• Mouse given just safe but alive form = ok
• Mouse given just dead but bad form = ok
• Mouse given both = ill
• Pneumonia caused by toxin. Info to create
toxin must have been transferred from
harmful form to safe form which was alive and
produced it.
 Triplet Code
• Gene – sections of DNA containing coded info
for making polypeptides
• Allele – different forms of same gene
• 3 bases code for 1 amino acid
• Triplet code always read in one direction –
start/stop sequences.
 Chromosomes
• Prokaryote – smaller, circular DNA
unassociated with protein molecules
• Eukaryote – larger, linear molecules that
associate with proteins to form chromosomes

• Homologous pair of chromosomes –

determine the same genetic characteristics
but are not identical. (different alleles)
 MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Produces 2 daughter cells (1 cell -> 2d) Produces 4 daughter cells (1 cell -> 4d)
Same number of chromosomes as parent Half the number of chromosomes as parent
cell cell
Diploid - 2 copies of each chromosomes Haploid – 1 copy of each chromosome
*even number *odd number
Used for growth/differentiation/repair/ Used for sexual reproduction (gamete
asexual reproduction formation)
Produces clones Produces genetically varied cells
Singular division 2 divisions (meiosis 1 + meiosis 2-mitosis)
Produces variation by: Produces variation by:
- mutation only - crossing over of chromatids (prophase 1)
(changes in DNA sequence, there are - independent segregation of chromosomes
mistakes. Different forms of same gene - mutations
caused by alleles) - random fusion of gametes
Stages IPMAT BABEH Stages
- interphase
- prophase
- metaphase
- anaphase
- telophase
 Meiosis
• Division 1
Homologous chromosomes pair up and their
chromatids wrap around eachother.
Crossing over takes place.
Homologous pairs seperate – each pair separates
into different cells.
• Division 2
Like mitosis.
Produces 4 daughter cells which are all haploid
as they contain 23 chromosomes. (in humans
this is)
 Mitosis
• Interphase (DNA replication)
• Prophase (Chromosomes are visible, nuclear envelope disintegrates)
• Metaphase (Chromosomes line up in centre of cell (equator))
• Anaphase (Spindle fibres attached to chromatids contract pulling chromatids towards
poles)

• Telophase (Cell begins to divide and nuclear envelope reforms)

• Cytokinesis
• DIVISIONS OF INTERPHASE;
G1 – proteins to create organelles are
produced
S – DNA replication
G2 – organelles grow and divide. Energy

CELL
stores increased

• THEN NUCLEAR DIVISION

• THEN CELL DIVISION CYCLE
 Cancer
• Uncontrollable growth of disorder cells
• Damages genes that regulate mitosis and cell cycle
• Tumour develops from this uncontrollable growth
TREATMENT OF CANCER
• Involves blocking part of the cell cycle
• Cell cycle disrupted and cancer growth ceases
• Drugs (chemo) prevent DNA from replicating OR inhibit the
metaphase stage of mitosis by interfering with spindle formation
• Problem is, they also disrupt cell cycle of normal cells
• But more effective against rapidly dividing cells so cancer cells
damaged to greater degree
• Hair-producing cells divide rapidly, and so they are affected and
hair-loss is frequent in patients undergoing cancer treatment
 VARIETY OF LIFE
• Haemoglobin
ROLE: readily associate with oxygen at the surface where gas
exchange takes place and readily dissociate from oxygen at those
tissues requiring it.
• 2 diff types – high affinity and low affinity
• (high easily take it up but do not release it easily. Low reverse.)
• An organism living in an environment with little oxygen requires
a Hgb that readily combines with oxygen to absorb enough of it.
As long as the organism has a low metabolic rate, it does not
matter that it does not release O2 as readily into tissues.
• An organism with a high metabolic rate needs to readily release
oxygen into tissues. Provided that there is plenty of oxygen in
it’s environment, it is more important that Hgb can readily
release oxygen rather than take it up easily.
 Oxygen Dissociation Curves
• To the left, greater affinity for oxygen (takes it up more
easily but releases it less easily)
• The Bohr effect (reduced affinity for O2 in presence of
CO2.) *rapidly respiring tissues
• Small animals = large surface area to volume ratio ->
lose heat rapidly (high metabolic rate) requires Hgb with
a low affinity for O2 (O2 dissociation curve to the right)
• Activity – high metabolic rate – low affinity
• O2 levels – high affinity for O2 (when tide goes out,
lugworm has less oxygen in burrow as it uses it up, and
requires hgb that readily takes it up and less readily
releases it
 Starch
• Polysaccharide
• Large amounts occur in plant seeds
• Major energy source in most diets
• Made up of alpha glucose, linked by glycosidic
bonds in a condensation reaction (hydrolysis splits)
• Compact, can store a lot in cells
• In soluble so does not draw water into cells by
osmosis + doesnt easily diffuse out of cells
• Hydrolysed forms alpha glucose again – easily
transported and used in repiration
• Not found in animal cells
 Glycogen
• Similar structure to starch
• Found in animal cells but never plants ‘animal
starch’
• Shorter chains and highly branched
• Stored as small granules in muscles and liver
• Insoluble, compact and very readily
hydrolysed to alpha glucose like starch
 Cellulose
• Made from beta glucose by glycosidic bonds
(forms straight chain (allowing bonds to form),
unlike coiled starch)
• Straight chains joined by hydrogen bonds as
cross-linkages
• Large number of h bonds, making cellulose
stronger
• Provides rigidity in plant cell walls
• Prevents cell from bursting as water enters it via
osmosis
 Plant cell
• Leaf palisade cell
- vacuole, chloroplasts, nucleus, cytoplasm, cell wall, cell membrane
• Chloroplasts
- carry out photosynthesis
- chloroplast envelope – double plasma membrane (outer + inner) that
surrounds the organelle
- grana (discs) stacks called thylakoids (chlorophyll located in thylakoids, 1st
stage of photosynthesis)
- stroma – fluid like matrix (2nd stage of photosynthesis here)
- *grana provide large surface area for 1 st stage of photo...
- fluid possesses enzymes for 2nd stage...
- contain DNA and ribosomes so can quickly manufacture proteins needed for
photosynthesis
• Cell wall
- contains cellulose (mechanical strength)
- Middle lamella separating adjacent cell walls
- allows water to pass along it and contribute to water movement
 Plant cell/Animal cell differences
Plant cells Animal cells
- Cell wall as well as cell-surface - Only cell-surface membrane
membrane - No cell wall
- Chloroplasts present - No chloroplasts

- Large central vacuole filled with sap - Vacuoles only sometimes present
- If are present, small and scattered
throughout cell

- Strarch grains used for storage - Glycogen granules used for storage
 Root hair cell
• Exchange surfaces in plants responsible for
absorption of water and mineral ions
• Last few weeks, die and replaced
• Absorb water by osmosis (Soil high water
conc. -> root hair low water conc.)
• Active transport uptake of ions (Soil low conc
of ions -> root hair high conc.)
 Xylem vessels
• Water transport in flowering plants
• Thick cell walls
• When matured, incorporate lignin and die
• The end walls break down, form a continuous
tube
 DNA Replication
• Semi – conservative
1. DNA helicase (enzyme) breaks down hydrogen
bonds between base pairs.
2. Double helix unwinds and separates into 2 strands.
3. Each polynucleotide then acts as a template to
which complementary nucleotides are attracted.
4. Nucleotides joined together by DNA polymerase
forming 2nd strand.
5. Each of new DNA molecules contains half original,
half new (semi-conservative)
• DNA helicase separates
• Each polynucleotide acts as a template
• New complementary polynucleotides formed
• Joined with DNA polymerase
 Cell differentiation
• TISSUE – group of similar cells that perform a
specific function.
• Epithelial tissues -> found in animals. Sheets
of cells. Line the surfaces of organs, have
protective or secretory function (intestine).
• Xylem -> occurs in plants. Used to transport
water/mineral ions and provides mechanical
support.
 Organs
• Organ – tissues aggregated into organs.
• Organ system – groups of organs
 EXCHANGE AND TRANSPORT
• Features of exchange surfaces:
- large surface area:volume (increase rate of
exchange)
- very thin (short diffusion pathway)
- partially permeable (allow certain substances
to pass without obstruction)
- movement of environmental (air) and
internal (blood) medium (maintain diffusion
gradient)
Gas exchange in single-celled organisms
• Small
• Large surface area:volume
• O2 absorbed by diffusion across their cell-
surface membrane of their single cellular body
• CO2 diffuses out
 Gas exchange in insects
• Water easily evaporates from body surface and become dehydrated
• To conserve water they have a waterproof cuticle coating
• Small surface area:volume (minimise area over which water is lost)
• ^ This means body surface cannot be used as a gas-exchange surface
• Spiracles are pores on surface which open and close. Spiracles open
to allow gas exchange, dont stay open so water cant evaporate.
• Have internal network of tubes called tracheae and trachioles taking
to body tissues.
• Respiratory gases move in and out of the tracheal system in 2 ways:
- along diffusion gradient. Cells respire and O2 used up, so conc. at
end of tracheoles is low. Creates gradient for O2 to diffuse from O2
rich atmosphere to cells. (revers for CO2)
• Ventilation – muscle movement that creates movements of air in
and out of trachae – speeding up rate of exchange.
 Gas exchange in fish
• Fish are waterproof so cannot exchange on surface (also
small SA:V)
• Gills behind fish head, made up of gill filaments stacked in
a pile.
• Gill lamellae at right angles to gill filaments which increase
Surface area
• Countercurrent flow -> water flow and blood flow run in
opposite directions
• (this means blood that is that already has oxygen meets
water with a higher O2 conc, so more o2 diffuses to blood)
• AND blood with little oxygen meets water, therefore
diffusion also takes place here maximising gas exchange.
 Gas exchange in mammals
• Transport systems
• Much larger and more complex
• Double circulatory system – passes through
heart twice for complete body circuit
• Blood pressure reduced in lungs, and would be
very slow if didnt pass through heart again
• Involves arteries, veins and capillaries
• Materials diffuse from blood vessels to cells and
is rapid (SA:V, thin, gradient)
 Blood vessels
• Arteries – carry blood away from heart to
arterioles
• Arterioles – control blood flow from arteries
to capillaries
• Capillaries – link arterioles to veins
• Veins – carry blood from capillaries back to
the heart
 Blood vessels
• Arteries, arterioles + veisn all:
- tough outer layer to resist pressure changes
- muscle layer that can contract and control
blood flow
- elastic layer to maintain blood pressure by
stretching and springing back
- thin inner lining (endothelium) smooth
preventing friction and allow diffusion
- lumen – central cavity through which blood
flows
 Blood vessels
• Arteries
- muscle layer thicker than veins (arteries can
constrict and dilate to control blood flow)
- elastic layer thicker than veins (to keep blood
pressure high to reach body extremities)
- thicker wall than veins (resists bursting under
pressure)
- there are no valves (blood at high pressure,
so does not flow backwards)
 Blood vessels
• Veins
- muscle layer is thinner than arteries (veins carry
blood away from tissues so do not constrict and
dilate)
- elastic layer is thinner (low blood pressure will
not cause them to burst + pressure to low to create
re-coil action)
- thinner wall (low pressure, no risk of bursting,
thick wall unnecessary. Also allows them to flatten)
- there are valves (low pressure so blood may flow
backwards)
 Blood vessels
• Arterioles
- muscle layer thicker than arteries (constricts
to control blood flow into capillaries)
- elastic layer thinner (lower blood pressure,
no recoil action, no risk of bursting)
 Blood vessels
• Capillaries
- walls are only lining layer (short diffusion
pathway)
- highly branched + large numbers (large surface
area)
- narrow diameter (no cell is far from a capillary)
- lumen narrow (red blood cells squeezed flat
bringing them closer to cells which they supply
oxygen too)
- spaces between lining (endothelial cells) – allow
white blood cells to escape and deal with infections
 Tissue fluid
• Contains glucose, fatty acids, salts and oxygen
• Supplies these to body tissues
• Receives in return CO2 and waste material
• FORMATION: blood pumped by heart under
pressure in narrow arterioles and narrower
capillaries called hydrostatic pressure. This
pressure forces tissue fluid out of the blood
plasma
 Gas exchange in plant leaves
• Large surface area
• Small pores called stomata (open and close.
Close to balance good gas exchange and bad
evaporation.)
• Air spaces throughout mesophyll
• Short diffusion pathway
Movement of water through roots
• Root hairs uptake water by osmosis (replaces
water lost by transpiration) – they have large
SA:V + thin surface layer so short d.pathway
• Soil high water potential, root low.
Movement of water through roots
• After being absorbed by root-hair cell, water
either goes across root through:
- apoplastic pathway
- symplastic pathway
Movement of water through roots
• Apoplastic
- through cell walls
- water has cohesive properties
- due to cohesion tension, water pulls more
water behind it
• Cellulose cell walls mesh like – offer little
resistance
 Movement of water through roots
• Symplastic
- through cytoplasm of cells
- when reaches cell walls, passes through tiny openings
filled with a thin strand of cytoplasm (these are
plasmodesmata)
• Root hair cell higher water potential than root cortex –
water passes to root cortex
• Root cortex cell higher water potential than it’s
neighbouring cell – water passes through
• Creating conc. gradient
• And so on, until it reaches endodermis
Movement of water through roots
• WATER INTO XYLEM
• Casparian strip stops apoplastic pathway along
cell wall, must join symplastic pathway.
• Active transport of mineral salts by endodermal
cells into xylem creates a lower water potential
• Water flows in by osmosis
• This creates root pressure, which helps water
move up the plant
 Movement of water up stems
• When stomata are open, water vapour
diffuses out. Replaced by water evaporating
from mesophyll cell walls
• Water in mesophyll cell walls replaced by
water in xylem through osmosis
 Movement of water up stems
• COHESION-TENSION
• Water evaporates from leaves
• Water molecules form H bonds and stick
together (cohesion)
• Water forms continous pathway
• As water evaporates from leaves, more
molecules of water are drawn up
• Water pulled through xylem in stem as a result
of transpiration (transpiration pull)
 Transpiration
• Light – photosynthesis only occurs in light, stomata
open in light. Increase light intensity = increase rate of
transpiration
• Temperature – increase, increases kinetic energy and
speed of movement of water molecules – faster rate of
evaporation.
• Humidity – high humidity lots of water molecules in air
decreasing gradient and rate of transpiration
• Air movement – humid layer forms around stomata
reducing water potential gradient. Movement of air
disperses the humid layer, increasing water potential
gradient and rate of transpiration.
 Potometer
• Potometers come in a variety of designs, but all follow the same
basic principle.
• A length of capillary tube A bubble is introduced to the capillary;
as water is taken up by the plant, the bubble moves. By marking
regular gradations on the tube, it is possible to measure water
uptake.
• A reservoir. Typically a funnel with a tap; turning the tap on the
reservoir resets the bubble. Some designs use a syringe instead.
• A tube for holding the shoot. The shoot must be held in contact
with the water; additionally, the surface of the water should not
be exposed to the air. Otherwise, evaporation will interfere with
measurements. A rubber bung greased with petroleum jelly
suffices.
 Potometer
• Cut a leafy shoot from a plant and plunge its base into water.
This prevents the xylem from taking up any air. Wetting the
leaves themselves will alter the rate of transpiration.
• Immerse the whole of the potometer into the sink. Move it
about until all the air bubbles come out.
• Recut the shoot's stem underwater. Put it into the bung; grease
the bung with plenty of petroleum jelly (Vaseline) if it doesn't
stay and then put the bung into the potometer.
• Make sure the tap is closed, then lift the whole assembly out of
the water.
• Leave the end of the capillary tube out of the water until an air
bubble forms then put the end into a beaker of water.
 Limiting water loss in plants
• Xerophytic plants
- leaves roll up = traps region of still air which
becomes saturated with water vapour and so there
is no water potential gradient, reducing transpiration
- thick cuticle = thicker waterproofing on leaf
- hairy leaves = thick layer of leaves trapping moist
air next to leaf surface. Water potential gradient
reduced + less water lost by transpiration
- stomata in pits/grooves = again traps air
- reduced SA:V = slows down rate of diffusion BUT
must be balanced with need for surface area for
photosynthesis
 CLASSIFICATION
• Binomial system – 2 names. In latin so
universal. First name = genus, second =
species.
• Taxonomy – biological classification of
organisms
- artificial classification = differences
- natural classification = evolutionary
relationships between organisms and their
ancestors
 CLASSIFICATION
• KINGDOM
• PHYLUM
• CLASS
• ORDER
• FAMILY
• GENUS
• SPECIES

Kiss Pete Clara, Or Face Greasy Sausage.

 Phylogeny
• Evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Evolutionary branch that led up to organism
 Evidence for relationships between
organisms
• Comparison of DNA base sequences
- Originally, the DNA of new species will have
been similar to the species which gave rise to
it
- Mutations accumulate over time
- More mutations, more distantly related
• Can compare using DNA hybridisation
 Evidence for relationships between
organisms
• DNA hydridisation
- DNA heated to separate strands
- one strand placed with strand from anotehr
organism and cooled to allow complementary
bases to combine
- hydrogen bonds form
- lower boiling point, less hydrogen bonds, less
alike
 Evidence for relationships between
organisms
• Comparison of amino acid sequences in
proteins
- amino acid sequence determined by DNA
- similarity of amino acids can reflect how
closely related 2 species are
- done by counting differences or similarities
in amino acids
 Evidence for relationships between
organisms
• Immunological comparisons of proteins
- antibodies respond to specific antigens
- Blood serum from species A injected into species
B
- Species B produces antibodies specific to species
A antigens
- Serum from species B containing antibodies
specific to species A antigens is mixed with serum
from species C
- Greater number of similar antigens, the more
precipitate formed and the more closely related
 Courtship behaviour
• Necessary to:
- recognise members of own species
- identify a mate capable of breeding and
producing fertile offspring
- form a pair bond (successful mating)
- synchronise mating (takes place at time
when max. probability of sperm and egg
meeting)
 GENETIC VARIATION IN BACTERIA
• Vertical gene transmission = genes passed
down from one generation to the next
• Horizontal gene transmission = DNA in form of
genes passed one species to another through
conjugation
Conjugation:
- one cell produces thin projection meeting
other cell forming tube between
- plasmid transferred through tube
 Mutations
- 3 DNA bases code for an amino acid.
- difference in base sequence due to mutation
may result in different amino acid sequence
- lead to different polypeptide, and different
protein (or no protein at all)
 Antibiotics
• A substance produced by living organisms that can
destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms
• They prevent bacteria making normal cell walls
- walls weakened and unable to withstand
pressure
- unable to prevent water entering
- osmotic lysis occurs
- killing bacterium
• THEREFORE ONLY EFFECTIVE WHEN BACTERIUM IS
GROWING!
 Antibiotic resistance
• Chance mutation within bacteria
• Mutation means can make new protein (an
enzyme which breaks down the antibiotic)
 Biodiversity
• Species diversity – number of diff. Species and
individuals within a community
• Genetic diversity – variety of genes within a
species
• Ecosystem diversity – range of different
habitats within one particular area
 Species diversity index
• D = N(N-1)
En(n-1)
• N = total number of individuals of all species
• n = total number of individuals of each species
 Reducing species diversity
• Agriculture
- human controlled
- genetic variety of alleles is reduced to those
that exhibit desired features
- large area taken up by one species to be
economic (reduces space for other species)
- other species have to compete for space,
food, light etc. over this large species
- pesticides
 Reducing species diversity
• Deforestation
- lots of habitats available in forest
- permanent clearing of land
- human activity/acid rain/fires
- loss of biodiversity
- even when regrown, only a few types