1.

2 Actual Cycles & Their

Analysis
PROF MOHNISH M. BORKER
A S S I S TA N T P R O F E S S O R
D E PA RT M E N T O F M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G , P C C E - G O A
The Three Thermodynamic Analysis of IC Engines are
I. Ideal Gas Cycle (Air Standard Cycle)
 Idealized processes
 Idealize working Fluid
II. Fuel-Air Cycle
 Idealized Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
III. Actual Engine Cycle
 Accurate Models of Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
• The operating cycle of an internal combustion engine can be broken down
into a sequence of separate processes like intake, compression,
combustion, expansion and exhaust.
• The internal combustion engine does not operate on a thermodynamic
cycle as it involves an open system, i.e the working fluid enters the system at
one set of conditions and leaves at another.
• However, it is often possible to analyse the open cycle as though it were a
closed one by imagining one or more processes that would bring the
working fluid at the exit conditions back to the conditions of the starting
point.
Air-Standard Cycle
• The accurate analysis of internal combustion engine processes is very
complicated.
• In order to understand the processes of an IC engine it is advantageous to
analyse the performance of an idealized closed cycle that closely
approximates the real cycle.
• One such approach is the air standard cycle, which is based on some
assumptions.
• They are called air standard engines because their working fluid is taken
to be majorly air.
 Assumptions of Air-Standard Cycles
1. The working fluid (air) has a constant mass throughout the entire air cycle and air
is taken to be a perfect gas.
2. The air maintains a constant specific heat capacity throughout the cycle.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat transfer process from an external
heat source.
4. The cycle is completed by the heat transfer to the surrounding in contrast to the
exhaust and the intake processes of an actual engine.
5. All the processes are internally reversible.
6. It is assumed that there are no heat losses from the system to the surroundings.
Otto Cycle
Analysis of Otto Cycle
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic compression.

Process 2-3: Constant volume heat addition.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic compression.

Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection.

Diesel Cycle
Analysis of Diesel cycle
Process 1-2: Reversible adiabatic Compression.

Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition.

Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic Compression.

Process 4-1: Constant volume heat rejection.

Work done
Tutorial 1: Air Standard Cycle
An Otto cycle engine having a clearance volume of 250 cc has a compress ratio of 8. The
ratio of pressure rise at constant volume is 4. If the initial pressure is 1 bar, find the work
done per cycle and the theoretical mean effective pressure. Take γ = 1.4
[1946 J/cycle, 11.12 bar]
A petrol engine working on Otto cycle has a maximum pressure of 50 bar. Heat supplied is 1000
kJ/kg. If the pressure ratio during compression is 12.286, determine the compression ratio and
also the ratio of peak temperature to inlet temperature. Take p1 = 1 bar and T1 = 27 °C
[6, 8.34]
An ideal cycle operates on a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 27 °C at the beginning of
compression and a pressure of 2 bar at the end of adiabatic expansion. Calculate the amount
of heat required to be supplied per kg of air if the ideal thermal efficiency is taken as 60%.
Take Cv = 0.717 kJ/kg K.
[537.75 kJ/kg]
A diesel cycle operates at a pressure of 1 bar at the beginning of compression and the volume is
compressed to 1/15 of the initial volume. Heat is then supplied until the volume is twice that of
the clearance volume. Determine the mean effective pressure. Take γ = 1.4.
[6.69 bar]
Fuel-Air Cycle
• Theoretical cycle based on the actual properties of the cylinder contents
(fuel, air, residual gases from the previous cycle) is called the fuel – air
cycle.
• The analysis of a fuel-air cycle has simplifying assumptions, which are
justifiable and close to the actual conditions than those used in the air-
standard cycle analysis.
• Previous analysis considered air as the working medium, but, in fuel-air
cycle analysis the presence of fuel in the cylinder is taken into account.
Hence, the working medium is considered to be a mixture of fuel-air.
The fuel – air cycle take into consideration the following:

1. The actual composition of the cylinder contents.

2. The variation in the specific heat of the gases in the cylinder.
3. The dissociation effect.
4. The variation in the number of moles present in the cylinder as the pressure
and temperature change.
5. No chemical changes in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
6. Combustion takes place instantaneously at top dead center.
7. All processes are adiabatic.
8. The fuel is mixed well with air.
• The actual composition of the cylinder contents are

• (Fuel +Air + Water vapor + residual gas)

• The fuel air ratio changes during the engine operation

 The change in air-fuel ratio affects the composition of gases before and
after combustion particularly the percentage of CO2, CO, H2O etc.. in the
exhaust gas.

• The amount of exhaust gases in the clearance volume various with speed and
load on the engine.
 The fresh charge composition varies its composition because when it
enters in the cylinder comes in contact with the burnt gases
The composition of the working fluid, which changes during the engine operating
cycle, is indicated in the following table
Process SI Engine CI Engine
Intake Air, Fuel, Recycled exhaust & Air, Recycled exhaust &
Residual gas Residual gas

Compression Air, Fuel Vapor, Recycled Air, Recycled exhaust &

exhaust & Residual gas Residual gas

Expansion Composition products ( CO2, Composition products ( CO2,

CO, H2, O2, NO, OH, O, H,…) CO, H2, O2, NO, N2, OH, H2O, O,
H,…)

Exhaust Composition products Composition products

(mainly N2, CO2, H2O) If If (mainly N2, CO2, H2O & O2)
ϕ<1 O2 or If ϕ>1 CO & H2
Losses due to variation of specific heats with temperature
• All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat as
temperature increase.
• The specific heat may be written in the form:

where T is the absolute temperature and a, b and c are constants for any
specific gas.
• 𝐶𝑣 and 𝐶𝑝 increase with temperature but (), decrease as the temperature
increase.
• If the variation of specific is taken into
account during the compression stroke,
the final pressure and temperature would
be lower than if constant value of specific
heats is used 2’
• When taking variable specific heat, end of
combustion will be 3’ instead of 3.
• Expansion process would be 3’—4’’ when
assumed isentropic, but expansion taking
variable specific heats into accounts is
above 3’—4’’ and represented by 3’—4’ .
• Thus it is seen that the effect of variation
of specific heats is to deliver less work.
The final cycle is (1—2’—3’—4’)
Losses due to dissociation
• The effect of dissociation is much smaller than that of change of specific
heats.
• It is the disintegration of combustion products at high temperatures.
(reverse combustion)

• Effect of dissociation: is to reduce the temperature of the products after

combustion by 300°C.
• This, in turn, reduces the amount of energy that can be drawn from the
combustion process and reduces the work output of engines.
• As the temperature falls during the
expansion stroke the separated
constituents recombine; the heat absorbed
during dissociation is thus again released,
but it is too late in the stroke to recover
entirely the lost power.
• A portion of this heat is carried away by
the exhaust gases.
• With no dissociation maximum
temperature is attained at chemically
correct air-fuel ratio.
• With dissociation maximum temperature is
obtained when mixture is slightly rich.
• If there is no dissociation, the brake power output is maximum when the mixture
ratio is stoichiometric.
• The shaded area between the brake power graphs shows the loss of power due to
dissociation. When the mixture is quite lean there is no dissociation.
• As the A/F ratio decreases i.e., as the mixture becomes rich the maximum
temperature raises and dissociation commences.
• The maximum dissociation occurs at chemically correct mixture strength.

Dissociation effects are not so pronounced

in a CI engine as in an SI engine. This is
mainly due to
1. The presence of a heterogeneous
mixture and
2. Excess air to ensure complete
combustion.
Actual Cycle
• The actual cycle experienced by internal combustion engines is an open
cycle with changing composition.
• Actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air standard efficiency due
to various losses occurring in the actual engine.
 Accurate Models of Processes
 Accurate Working Fluid Model
These losses are as follows:
1. Losses due to variation of specific heats with temperature:.
2. Losses due to dissociation.
3. Time losses, effect of spark timing
4. Incomplete combustion loss.
5. Direct heat loss.
6. Exhaust blow down loss.
7. Pumping losses.
8. Friction losses.
Out of all the factors, major influence is exercised by

a) Time loss factor i.e. loss due to time required for mixing of fuel and air
and also for combustion,

b) Heat loss factor i.e. loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls,

c) Exhaust blowdown factor i.e. loss of work on the expansion stroke due to
early opening of the exhaust valve.
Time Loss Factor
• In air-standard cycles the heat addition is
an instantaneous process whereas in an
actual cycle it is over a definite period of
time.
• The crankshaft will usually turn about 30
to 40 degrees between the initiation of
the spark and the end of combustion
(time loss due to progressive
combustion)
• Due to the finite time of combustion, peak
pressure will not occur when the volume
is minimum (TDC) but will occur some
time after TDC
• The pressure, therefore, rises in the first
part of the working stroke from b to c as
shown in Fig.
• This loss of work reduces the efficiency
and is called time loss due to progressive
combustion.
• The time taken for combustion depends upon

 The flame velocity which in turn depend up on the type of fuel

and the fuel-air ratio

 The shape and size of the combustion chamber.

 The distance from the point of ignition to the opposite side of

the combustion space

• In order that the peak pressure is not reached too late in the
expansion stroke, the time at which the combustion starts is varied
by varying the spark timing or spark advance.
 If the spark is advanced to achieve
With spark at TDC (0° spark advance), the
complete combustion close to TDC
peak pressure is low due to the expansion
additional work is required to compress the
of gases.
burning gasses
 With or without spark advance the work
area could be less and the power output
and efficiency are lowered.

Therefore a moderate or optimum spark

advance (15° - 30°) is the best
compromise resulting in minimum losses
on both the compression and expansion
strokes.
 Only about 95 % of the energy is released with stoichiometric fuel air ratios.

 Energy released in actual engine is about 90% of fuel energy input.

 It should be noted that it is necessary to use a lean mixture to eliminate

wastage of fuel, while a rich mixture is required to utilize all the oxygen.

 Slightly leaner mixture would give maximum efficiency but too lean a mixture
will burn slowly increasing the time losses or will not burn at all causing total
wastage of fuel

 In a rich mixture a part of the fuel will not get the necessary oxygen and will
be completely lost.
Heat Loss Factor
During combustion the heat flows from the cylinder gases through
Cooling water
Lubricating oil
Conduction and convection and radiation
Heat loss during combustion will have the maximum effect on the cycle
efficiency
 The effect of heat loss during combustion
reduce the maximum temperature and
therefore the specific heats are lower.

 Out of various losses, heat losses contribute

around 12 %
Exhaust gas blowdown
 The actual exhaust process consists of two phases:
a) Blowdown
b) Displacement
 Blowdown – At the end of the power stroke when the exhaust valve opens
the cylinder pressure is much higher than the exhaust manifold pressure
which is typically at 1 atm (P4 > Pe), so the cylinder gas flows out through
the exhaust valve and the pressure drops to Pe.
 Displacement – Remaining gas is pushed out of the cylinder by the piston
from BDC moving to TDC
Exhaust stroke of IC engine
When to open the exhaust valve?
 The cylinder pressure at the end of expansion stroke is high as 7 bar
depending on the compression ratio employed.
 If the exhaust valve is opened at BDC, the piston has to do work against
high cylinder pressure during the early part of the exhaust stroke.
 If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion stroke is
lost.
 The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 40 to 70 degrees before
BDC thereby reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway (say 3.5 bar) before
the exhaust stroke begins.
Exhaust stroke
Loss due to gas exchange process (pumping loss)
 The work done for intake and exhaust stroke cancelled each other
 The pumping loss increased at part throttle, because throttling reduce the
suction pressure
 Pumping loss also increase with speed
 Pumping loss affect the Volumetric efficiency when Pi less than Pe
Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency affected by
1. The density of fresh charge
2. The exhaust gas in the clearance volume
3. The design of intake and exhaust manifold
4. The timing of intake and exhaust valves
a) density of fresh charge
 As the fresh charge arrives in the hot cylinder, heat is transferred to it from
 The hot chamber walls
 The hot residual gases
 Temperature rise reduces the density , which decrease the mass of fresh
charge admitted and a reduction in volumetric efficiency
 The volumetric efficiency increased by
 Low temperature
 High pressure of fresh charge
b) exhaust gas in the clearance volume

 The residual gas occupy a portion of piston displacement volume, thus

reducing the space available to the incoming charge.

 These exhaust products tend to rise the temperature of the fresh charge.
c) design of intake and exhaust manifold

 The exhaust manifold should be designed to enables the exhaust products

to escape readily,

 The intake manifold should be designed so as to bring in  maximum

possible fresh charge flowing in to the cylinder
d) timing of intake and exhaust valves

 Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle at which the valves
are set to open and close.

 Valves requires a finite period of time to open or close for smooth

operation
 The effect of intake valve timing on the engine air capacity is indicated by its
effect on the air inducted per cylinder, per cycle.

 The intake valve timing for both a low and high speed SI engine
Loss due to running friction
 The losses are due to friction between

• The piston and the cylinder walls

• In various bearings

• Energy spent in operating the auxiliary equipment (cooling pump,

ignition system, fan…)

 The piston ring friction increases rapidly with engine speed.

Ideal and actual Otto cycle
Ideal and actual Diesel cycle