4.

The Cell
STRUCTURE OF A GENERALIZED CELL
Structure of a cell can be studied under light microscope as well
as electron microscope. cellular parts separate out in
different layers depending upon
their size and weight, and
Various components of cells can be separated (including its
density of the medium.
organelles) by a process of cell fractionation and study their
structure and function in detail.

During cell fractionation the tissues are homogenized

or disrupted with special instruments and the various
parts of the cells are separated by density gradient
centrifugation. This separation is achieved by
spinning the homogenized or disrupted cells in a
special medium in a centrifuge at medium speed.

ultracentrifugation.
A cell consists of the following basic components:
1. Plasma membrane, also a cell wall in plant cell.
2. Cytoplasm, containing cell organelles.
3. Nucleus, with nuclear or chromatin material.
 Lipid : 20 – 40%
PLASMA MEMBRANE The outermost boundary of the cell.
Protein : 60 – 80%

Unit membrane model Lipid bilayer sandwiched between inner and outer layer of proteins.

Protein layer not continuous, not confined to the surface of membrane, but embedded in
lipid layer in a mosaic manner.
Fluid mosaic model Contain charged pores through which movement of materials take place, both by active and
passive transport.
Cell membrane is differentially/ selectively permeable. Substances move across the
cell membrane either by active
The substances which are lipid soluble cross it more easily than transport or passive transport.
others, therefore, it regulates the flow of materials and ions to
maintain a definite gradient.

Many small gas molecules, water, glucose etc. being neutral can
easily cross while ions, being charged particles, have some
difficulty in crossing.

In many animal cells, the cell membrane helps to take in

materials by in folding in the form of vesicles/vacuoles. This
type of intake is termed as endocytosis.

phagocytosis pinnocytosis
Cell Wall The outer most boundary in most of the plant cells is cell wall.

It is secreted by the protoplasm of the cell. Its thickness varies Cell wall is very important. It provides a
in different cells of the plant. It is composed of three main definite shape to the cell and keeps it
layers: rigid. It does not act as a barrier to the
• primary wall materials passing through it.
• secondary wall
• middle lamella.
The middle lamella is first to be formed in between the primary walls of the neighboring cells.

The primary wall is composed of cellulose

and some deposition of pectin and hemicelluloses. Cellulose
molecules are arranged in a crisscross arrangement . The primary
wall is a true wall and develops in newly growing cells.

The secondary wall is formed on its inner surface and is

comparatively thick and rigid. Chemically it is composed of
inorganic salts, silica, waxes, cutin and lignin etc.

Fungal cell wall --- chitin Prokaryotic cell wall --- peptidoglycan
 Prokaryotic cell wall --- peptidoglycan
Fungal cell wall --- chitin
 Cytoplasm Protoplasm – nucleus = cytoplasm

Cytoplasm consists of an aqueous ground substance containing a variety of cell organelles and other inclusions such as
insoluble wastes and storage products.

Cytosol In the cytosol, small molecules and ions may

It is the soluble part of the cytoplasm.
It forms the ground substance of the cytoplasm.
Chemically it is about 90% water. It forms a solution
containing all the fundamental molecules of life.
The most important function of the cytoplasm is to act as a store
house of vital chemicals. It is also a site for certain metabolic
processes such as glycolysis.
In living cells the cytoplasm contains several cell organelles such
as endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi complex,
nucleus, plastids, ribosomes, lysosomes and centriole.
form true solutions, and some large
molecules form colloidal solutions.
sol (non-viscous)
gel (viscous).
The free floating cell organelles e.g.
mitochondria move about in cytoplasm due to
cytoplasmic streaming movements. This is an
active mass movement of cytoplasm.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is a network of channels is seen
extending throughout the cytoplasm;
often continuous with plasma
membrane and in contact with the
nuclear membrane.

• Lipid metabolism
• Drug detoxification
• Transmission of impulse
• Transport of materials
across cytoplasm

Protein synthesis
 Ribosomes Palade (1955) was the first person to study them.

Ribosomes exist in two

forms; either freely
dispersed in cytoplasm or
attached with RER as
tiny granules.
60S
eukaryotic ribosome consists
of two sub-units.

Two subunits on attachment

with each other form 80S
particle. This attachment is
controlled by the presence of
Mg2+ ions.

40S.
The ribosomes are attached to messenger RNA through small ribosomal subunit.
A group of ribosomes attached to mRNA is known as polysome.

New ribosomes are assembled in the nucleolus of the nucleus from where they are transported to the
cytoplasm via the pores in nuclear membrane. The factory of ribosome is the nucleolus, while that
of protein synthesis is the ribosomes.
 Golgi Apparatus Discovered by Golgi in 1898.
This apparatus, which was found virtually in all
eukaryotic cells, consists of stacks of flattened,
membrane bound sacs, called cisternae. These
cisternae together with associated vesicles are
called Golgi complex.
Cisternae stacks are continuously formed by
fusion of vesicles, which are probably derived
by the budding of SER.
Their outer convex surface is the forming
face, while the inner concave surface is the
maturing face. The cisternae break up into
vesicles from the latter.
The whole stack consists of a number of
cisternae thought to be moving from the
outer to the inner face.
Cis face = forming face
Trans face = maturing face
Golgi complex is concerned with cell secretions.
Secretions are products formed within the cell on
ribosomes and then passed to the outside through
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi Apparatus. The
secretions are converted into finished product and
are packed inside membrane, before export.
The proteins or enzymes which have to be
transported out of the cell pass through the Golgi
Apparatus. The most important function of this
apparatus is to modify the proteins and lipids by
adding carbohydrates and converting them into
glycoproteins or glycolipids.
 Lysosomes Isolated as a separate component for the first time by De Duve (1949).
(Lyso = splitting; soma = body)

Any foreign object that gains entry into the

cell is immediately engulfed by the lysosome
and is completely broken into simple
digestible pieces. The process is known as
phagocytosis (eating process of a cell).

They are bounded by a single membrane and

are simple sacs rich in acid phosphatase and
several other hydrolytic enzymes. These
enzymes are synthesized on RER and are
further processed in the Golgi apparatus.

The processed enzymes are budded of as Golgi

vesicles and are called as primary lysosomes.
Lysosomes contain those enzymes which can digest
the phagocytosed food particles.
What is meant by autophagy?
The process of digesting some old, worn out parts of cell, such Autophagosomes are the
as old mitochondria, is known as autophagy (self eating). In this lysosomes involved in autophagy.
way, materials of cell may be recycled and cell may be renewed. These digestive vacuoles and
Their enzymes can also result in degeneration of cell, as may auto phagosomes are secondary
occur during some developmental processes. Lysosomes also
lysosomes.
release enzymes for extra cellular digestion.

What are storage

diseases?
In glycogenosis type II disease, the liver
The diseases which occur due to the and muscle appear filled with glycogen
within membrane bound organelles.
absence of some lysosomal enzymes
responsible for catabolism of certain
substances, resulting in
Tay-Sach’s disease is because of absence
accumulation within the cell of of an enzyme that is involved in the
substances such as glycogen or catabolism of lipids. Accumulation of lipids
various glycolipids. in brain cells lead to mental retardation and
even death.

Peroxisome Isolated by De-Duve and coworkers in 1965.
The name peroxisome was applied because
this organelle is specifically involved in the
formation and decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide in the cell.
from liver cells and other tissues which
were enriched with some oxidative
enzymes, such as peroxidase, catalase,
glycolic acid oxidase and some other
enzymes.

These are single membrane enclosed

cytoplasmic organelles found both in
animal and plant cells.
They have also been found in protozoa and
yeast cells.

They are approximately 0.5 nm in diameter.

These are characterised by containing H 202 -

producing oxidases and catalase.
 An organelle found only in plant cells, which in addition to glycolic acid oxidase and
Glyoxysomes catalase also possess a number of enzymes that are not found in animal cells.

Most abundant in plant seedlings, which rely upon stored fatty acids to provide them with the energy and material to
begin the formation of a new plant.

Germinating seedlings convert stored fatty

acids to carbohydrates through glyoxylate
cycle, the enzymes of which are located in the
glyoxysomes.

In seeds rich in lipids such as castor bean and

soyabeans, glyoxysomes are the sites for
breakdown of fatty acids to succinate.

This organelle is present only during a short period in the germination of the lipid-rich seed and is
absent in lipid-poor seed such as the pea.
 Vacuoles
A vacuole is a membrane-bound cell organelle. In animal cells,
vacuoles are generally small and help sequester waste
products. In plant cells, vacuoles help maintain water balance.
Sometimes a single vacuole can take up most of the interior
space of the plant cell.

Vacuoles serve to expand the plant cell without diluting its

cytoplasm and also function as sites for the storage of
water and cell products or metabolic intermediates.

The plant vacuole is the major

contributor to the turgor that
provides support for the
individual plant cell and
contributes to the rigidity of
the leaves and younger parts
of the plants.
 Cytosol contains cytoskeletal fabric formed of microtubules, microfilaments and
Cytoskeleton intermediate filaments.

cilia, flagella, basal bodies and centrioles. • Actin

Main • Myosin
proteins • Tropomyosin
• Tubulin

Intermediate filaments have

diameter in between those of
microtubules &
microfilaments and play role
in the maintenance of cell
shape.

Microfilaments are slender cylinders made up of

Microtubules are long, unbranched, slender tubulin
contractile actin protein, linked to the inner face of the
protein structures having a role in the assembly and
plasma membrane. They are involved in internal cell
disassembly of the spindle structure during mitosis.
motion.
 Found in animal cells, some microorganisms and lower plant cells but absent in higher plants.
Centriole
In cross section each centriole consists of a cylindrical
array of nine microtubules; each of the nine
microtubules is further composed of three tubules.

The two centrioles are usually placed at right angle to

each other. Just before a cell divides, its centrioles
duplicate and one pair migrates to the opposite side of
the nucleus. The spindle then forms between them.
 Mitochondria Power house of the cell

Double membrane; outer membrane smooth; inner

membrane has many infoldings called cristae,
hanging into mitochondrial matrix. These cristae
bear knob like structures called F1 particles.

Mitochondrial matrix contains many enzymes, co-

enzymes, organic and inorganic salts required for
aerobic respiration, lipid metabolism etc.

As a result of these metabolic processes the energy extracted from the organic
food is transformed into energy rich compound ATP (adenosine triphosphate),
and the ATP then provides energy to the cell on demand.
Why mitochondria are termed as self replicating bodies?
Presence of DNA and ribosomes in the mitochondrial matrix
indicate that theses are self replicating bodies.
Why mitochondria are known as “powerhouse” of the cell?
Mitochondria extract energy from different components of
food and convert it in the form of ATP. This energy is used for
various cellular activities. The spent energy, which is in the
form of ADP is regenerated by the mitochondria into ATP.
Mitochondria is therefore described as power house of the
cell.

The size and number of Skin cells, erythrocytes,

mitochondria varies and Cardiac muscles
depends on the
physiological activity of
the cell.
Plastids Membrane bound, mostly pigment containing bodies present in the cells are called Plastids.
Plastids are present in plant cells only.
There are three main types of plastids.
 1. Chloroplasts membrane bound structures containing a green pigment, called chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts vary in their shape and size with a

diameter of about 4-6 nm.

Under light microscope: heterogeneous structures

with small granules known as grana embedded in
the matrix.
Under electron microscope: three main components,
the envelope, the stroma and the thylakoid.

The envelope is formed by a double membrane,

while stroma covers most of the volume of the
chloroplast.
Stroma is a fluid which surrounds the thylakoids.
It contains proteins, some ribosomes and a small
circular DNA. It is in this part of the chloroplast
where CO2 is fixed to manufacture sugars. Some
proteins are also synthesized in this part.
Chlorophyll molecule resembles the haem
Thylakoids are the flattened vesicles which arrange themselves
group of haemoglobin, but has Mg++
to form grana and inter-grana. A granum appears to be a pile of
instead of Fe++
thylakoids stacked on each other like coins.
 NUCLEUS Nucleus consists of nuclear membrane, nucleoli, nucleoplasm and chromosomes.

• First reported by Robert Brown in

1831.
• Central position in animal cells but
pushed to periphery in plant cells.
• May be irregular or spherical in shape.
• Only visible in a non dividing cell.
• Contains chromatin network and
nucleoplasm.
• In dividing cells, the nucleus
disappears and the chromatin material
in it is replaced by chromosomes.
• The heredity material is in the form of
chromosomes, which controls all the
activities of the cell. Cells may be
• DNA, RNA and proteins including • Mononucleate
enzymes form the chemical • Binucleate
composition of the nucleus. • Polynucleate
The nuclear envelope consists of two The nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane, is
lipid bilayer membranes: made up of two lipid bilayer membranes that in eukaryotic cells
• inner nuclear membrane surrounds the nucleus, which encases the genetic material.
• outer nuclear membrane

The space between the membranes is

called the perinuclear space. It is
usually about 10–50 nm wide.

The outer nuclear membrane is

continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum membrane.

The nuclear envelope has many

nuclear pores that allow materials to
move between the cytosol and the
nucleus.
The nuclear pores allow the exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The number of
nuclear pores is highly variable. The undifferentiated cells (such as eggs) have numerous pores (about 30,000
per nucleus), whereas differentiated cells such as erythrocytes have only 3 or 4 pores/nucleus. Each pore has
a definite structure which controls the traffic of substances passing through them
 Nucleolus
It is a darkly stained body within the nucleus, and is
without any membranous boundary to separate it
from the rest of the nuclear material. There may be
one or more nucleoli in the nucleus.
The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized and
stored in the nucleolus.
It is composed of two regions, the peripheral
granular area composed of precursors of
ribosomal subunits and the central fibrill area
consisting of large molecular weight RNA and
rDNA. (The genes encoding the rRNA genes are known as
rDNA )
It is the nucleolus where ribosomes are assembled
and are then exported to the cytoplasm via nuclear
pores.
Under a compound microscope, chromosomes appear to be
made of arms and centromeres.
Centromere is the place on the chromosome where spindle
fibers are attached during cell division.
Each chromosome consists of two identical chromatids at the
beginning of cell division (chromatid is exact replica of the
chromosome) which are held together at centromere.

A chromosome is composed of DNA and proteins. All the

information necessary to control the activities of the cell is located
on the chromosomes in the form of genes, which are transferred
from one generation to the other. The number of chromosomes in
all individuals of the same species remains constant generation
after generation.

Man 46
Frog 26
Chimpanzee 48
Fruit fly 8
Onion 16
Potato 48
Pea 14