“Special Relativity can’t

deal with acceleration.”

(Need general relativity??)

“Special Relativity can

handle acceleration.”
Special Relativity (1905) General Relativity (1915)
• Speed of light in vacuum • A theory of gravity based
constant in all inertial frames on “equivalence principle”
• local gravitation = acceleration
• Ignores Gravity • Takes Gravity into account
• Flat spacetime • Curved spacetime

Special Relativity
• Ignores Gravity
S.R. (Inertial Frames)
• laws of physics are the same
• ignoring gravity
• speed of light is constant
• when viewed from inertial frames:
• constant velocity
• straight-line coordinates
General Relativity
• Takes Gravity
into account
S.R. (Non-Inertial Frames)
• extra ficticious forces exist
• speed of light depends on frame
• when viewed from inertial frames:
• changing velocity (acceleration)
• curvilinear coordinates
S.R. (Inertial Frames)
• laws of physics are the same
• ignoring gravity
• speed of light is constant
• when viewed from inertial frames:
• constant velocity
• straight-line coordinates
S.R. (Non-Inertial Frames)
• extra ficticious forces exist
• speed of light depends on frame
• when viewed from inertial frames:
• changing velocity (acceleration)
• curvilinear coordinates
S.R. (Inertial Frames)
• laws of physics are the same
• ignoring gravity
• speed of light is constant
• when viewed from inertial frames:
• constant velocity
• straight-line coordinates
S.R. (Non-Inertial Frames)
• extra ficticious forces exist
• speed of light depends on frame
• when viewed from inertial frames:
• changing velocity (acceleration)
• curvilinear coordinates
 Won’t see
truly curved geometry
until
General Relativity!
Relativity 105:
Acceleration In Special Relativity
a. Hyperbolic Motion (acceleration), Rindler Horizon
b. Rinder Coordinates and Bell’s Spaceship Paradox
c. Basis Vectors/Jacobian in Curvilinear Coordinates
d. The Proper Time Along Curves and Twin Paradox
e. Covariant Derivative
f. Geodesic Curves (inertial frames/zero forces)
Constant Acceleration 𝑐𝑡
in Newtonian Physics 𝑡
𝑐
curve of constant acceleration =

)
m
𝑥

ea
tb
faster-than-light

gh
parabola

(li
travel is impossible!!

𝑥
(Relativity 104d)
Acceleration in 𝑐𝑡

)
m
ea
Special Relativity

tb
gh
(li
𝑐 𝑡 never reaches the
curve of constant acceleration =
𝑥 speed of light!!

hyperbola
𝑥

(see Relativity 104e for review)

Constant Acceleration in Special Relativity
1. Prove that 4-velocity and 4-acceleration are orthogonal

2. Choose “constant” acceleration

3. Get equations of motion (hyperbola)

1. Prove that 4-velocity and 4-acceleration
are Minkowski orthogonal

⃗ ⃗
𝑈 ⋅ 𝐴=0
Euclidean Orthogonal Minkowski Orthogonal
(equal angles with beam of light)
 Proof: Product Rule over dot product

𝑑 ⃗ ⃗ 𝑑⃗ 𝑈 ⃗ ⃗ 𝑑⃗
( )
𝑈 𝑑 ⃗
𝑈
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝑈 )= ⋅ 𝑈 +𝑈 ⋅ ⃗
=2 𝑈 ⋅ =2 ( ⃗ 𝐴)
𝑈⋅⃗
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝜏

⃗ ⃗
𝑈 ⋅ 𝐴=0
Minkowski “length” cannot change
of is constant. length of …
𝑐𝑡 It can only change
⃗ ⃗
𝑈 ⋅ 𝑈=𝑐
2
the direction of

⃗
𝑈

𝑥
 ⃗ ⃗
𝐴 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 =0
𝑐𝑡

⃗ ⃗
𝐴 𝑜𝑟𝑡h𝑜𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑙 ≠ 0
⃗
𝑈

𝑥
Constant Acceleration in Special Relativity
1. Prove that 4-velocity and 4-acceleration are orthogonal

2. Choose “constant” acceleration

3. Get equations of motion (hyperbola)

What is “Constant Acceleration”?

Newtonian Acceleration
constant?
relative!
(depends on
reference frame)

Proper Acceleration
Proper Time Proper Acceleration
time measured by a acceleration measured
clock the observer is by an accelerometer
carrying with them the observer is carrying
with them
Elevator accelerates Car accelerates forward…
upward…

… passenger feels pulled backward

Accelerometers can
measure accelerations.
… passenger feels
(available in most smartphones)
pulled downward.
Constant Proper Acceleration

accelerating observer
measures a constant
on accelerometer they
are carrying.
𝑐𝑡
Rindler: constant
proper acceleration
in x-direction

𝑥
Einstein:
stationary
 Lorentz
Transformation
can change coordinates
to any inertial
(straight-line) frame.
 Lorentz
Transformation
can change coordinates
to any inertial
(straight-line) frame.
 Lorentz
Transformation
can change coordinates
to any inertial
(straight-line) frame.
 Lorentz
Transformation
cannot change coordinates
to a non-inertial
(curved) frame.
 Lorentz
Transformation
cannot change coordinates
to a non-inertial
(curved) frame.
 Lorentz
Transformation
can change coordinates to
a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
 Lorentz
Transformation
can change coordinates to
a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
⃗
𝑆
same 4-position
 Lorentz
Transformation
can change coordinates to
a specific point on a
⃗
𝑈
non-inertial worldline

same 4-velocity
 Lorentz
Transformation
~ can change coordinates to
⃗
𝑒𝑡 a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 Lorentz
Transformation
~ can change coordinates to
⃗
𝑒𝑡 a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 Lorentz
Transformation
~ can change coordinates to
⃗
𝑒𝑡 a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
~
Lorentz
⃗
𝑒𝑡
Transformation
~ can change coordinates to
⃗𝑥
𝑒 a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
~ Lorentz
⃗𝑥
𝑒
Transformation
can change coordinates to
a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
A curved worldline is
~ ~ like a series of
⃗ ⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑒𝑡 instantaneous inertial
~ ~ frames.
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒

~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
A curved worldline is
~ like a series of
⃗
𝑒𝑡 instantaneous inertial
~ frames.
⃗
𝑒𝑡
is tangent to
the worldline.
 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
A curved worldline is
~ ~ like a series of
⃗ ⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑒𝑡 instantaneous inertial
~ ~ frames.
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
is tangent to
the worldline.
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 is orthogonal
“instantaneous inertial frame”
= “local inertial frame”

= “local Lorentz frame”

“instantaneous inertial frame”
= “momentary inertial frame”

= “Momentarily Comoving
Reference Frame (MCRF)”
 Lorentz
Transformation
~ can change coordinates to
⃗
𝑒𝑡 a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 Lorentz
Transformation
~ can change coordinates to
⃗
𝑒𝑡 a specific point on a
non-inertial worldline
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 ⃗
𝑈 A curved worldline is
⃗
𝐴 like a series of
⃗
𝑈 instantaneous inertial
frames.
⃗
𝑈 ⃗
𝐴
is tangent to
the worldline.
⃗
𝐴 is orthogonal
 ~
In an instantaneous inertial frame… ⃗
𝑒𝑡
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
~ ~ ~ ~
is parallel to . ⃗
𝑈 =𝑐 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 + 0 ⃗
𝑒𝑥+ 0 ⃗
𝑒 𝑦 +0 ⃗
𝑒𝑧
(both tangent to worldline)
(The observer in the frame thinks
they are stationary in space.)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
is orthogonal to . ⃗
𝐴=0 ⃗
𝑥
𝑒𝑡 + 𝑎 ⃗
𝑦
𝑒𝑥 +𝑎 ⃗
𝑧
𝑒𝑦 + 𝑎 ⃗𝑒𝑧
(The observer in the frame has
purely spatial acceleration.)
 Constant Proper Acceleration:
For Einstein, components For Rindler, components
of are changing. of are constant.
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
~
⃗
𝐴=𝛼 ⃗
𝑒
⃗
𝐴=𝑎 ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 +𝑏 ⃗
𝑒𝑥 ~ 𝑥
~ ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑡

⃗ ⃗ ~
𝐴=0 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 +𝛼 ⃗
𝑒 𝑥 ~ ⃗
~ 𝐴=𝛼 𝑒 𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝐴=− 𝑎 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 + 𝑏 ⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
 ~𝑦 ~ 𝑧
(invariant) 𝐴 = 𝐴 =0
⃗ ⃗
𝐴⋅ 𝐴=−𝛼
2 ⃗ ⃗
𝐴⋅ 𝐴=−𝛼
2
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
~
⃗
𝐴=𝛼 ⃗
𝑒
⃗
𝐴=𝑎 ⃗
𝑒 𝑡 +𝑏 ⃗
𝑒𝑥 ~ 𝑥
~ ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑡

⃗ ⃗ ~
𝐴=0 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 +𝛼 ⃗
𝑒 𝑥 ~ ⃗
~ 𝐴=𝛼 𝑒 𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝐴=− 𝑎 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 + 𝑏 ⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
Constant Acceleration in Special Relativity
1. Prove that 4-velocity and 4-acceleration are orthogonal

2. Choose constant proper acceleration

~ 𝑦 ~ 𝑧
𝐴 = 𝐴 =0
3. Get equations of motion (hyperbola)
 Analyze Rindler’s motion
from Einstein’s frame. ⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗ ⃗
𝑒𝑥
𝑒𝑥
(No motion in or directions)
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑈
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗ ⃗
𝐴
𝑈
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗⃗
𝑒 ⃗
𝑈 𝑡 𝐴
⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑈 =𝑈 ⃗
𝑡
𝑒𝑡 +𝑈 ⃗
𝑥
𝑒𝑥 ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝐴
⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗ 𝑡
𝐴= 𝐴 𝑒
𝑥
⃗+ 𝐴 𝑒 ⃗
𝑡 𝑥
(Always true.) (𝑈⃗ ⋅⃗𝑈 ) =+𝑐 = ( 𝑈 ) − ( 𝑈 )
2 𝑡 2 𝑥 2

(Always true.) ⃗ ⃗
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝐴 ) =0=( 𝑈 ) ( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝑈 ) ( 𝐴 )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥

Special Case
(“constant” acceleration)
(⃗ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 =( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝐴 )
𝐴⋅⃗
2 𝑡 2 𝑥 2
(Always true.) (𝑈⃗ ⋅⃗𝑈 ) =+𝑐 = ( 𝑈 ) − ( 𝑈 )
2 𝑡 2 𝑥 2

(Always true.) ⃗ ⃗
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝐴 ) =0=( 𝑈 ) ( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝑈 ) ( 𝐴 )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥

Special Case
(“constant” acceleration)
(⃗ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 =( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝐴 )
𝐴⋅⃗
2 𝑡 2 𝑥 2

𝑡 𝛼 𝑥
𝐴 = 𝑈
𝑐
𝑥 𝛼 𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑈
𝑐
(Always true.) (𝑈⃗ ⋅⃗𝑈 ) =+𝑐 = ( 𝑈 ) − ( 𝑈 )
2 𝑡 2 𝑥 2

(Always true.) ⃗ ⃗
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝐴 ) =0=( 𝑈 ) ( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝑈 ) ( 𝐴 )
𝑡 𝑡 𝑥 𝑥

Special Case
(“constant” acceleration)
(⃗ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 =( 𝐴 ) − ( 𝐴 )
𝐴⋅⃗
2 𝑡 2 𝑥 2

𝑡 𝛼 𝑥
𝐴 = 𝑈
𝑐
𝑥 𝛼 𝑡
𝐴 = 𝑈
𝑐
Inertial Frame:
 𝑡 𝑥
𝑡 𝛼 𝑥 𝑑𝑈 𝑥 𝛼 𝑡 𝑑𝑈
𝐴= 𝑈 = 𝐴 = 𝑈 =
𝑐 𝑑𝜏 𝑐 𝑑𝜏
 𝑡 𝑥
𝛼 𝑥 𝑑𝑈 𝑡 𝑐 𝑑𝑈
𝑈 = 𝑈 =
𝑐 𝑑𝜏 𝛼 𝑑𝜏

𝑥 𝛼 𝛼
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=¿ 𝑒 𝑐
𝜏
or 𝑒 −
𝑐
𝜏

𝛼 𝛼
𝜏 − 𝜏
𝑥 𝑐 𝑐
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=𝑘1 𝑒 +𝑘 2 𝑒
 𝑥
𝑈 (𝜏 )
𝛼 𝛼
𝜏 − 𝜏
𝑥 𝑐 𝑐
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=𝑘1 𝑒 +𝑘2 𝑒
Multiple solutions….
Need to pick “initial conditions”…

when .

⃗ 𝑡
𝑈 =𝑈 ⃗
𝑥
𝑒𝑡 +𝑈 ⃗𝑒𝑥 𝜏
𝜏= 0
⃗
𝑒𝑡
⃗
𝑒𝑥
 𝑡
𝛼 𝑥 𝑑𝑈
𝑈 = Choose an initial condition:
𝑐 𝑑𝜏
start with zero speed.
when .

𝑥 𝛼 𝛼
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=¿ 𝑒 𝑐
𝜏
or 𝑒 −
𝑐
𝜏

𝛼 𝛼
𝜏 − 𝜏
𝑥 𝑐 𝑐
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=𝑘1 𝑒 +𝑘 2 𝑒
 𝑡 𝑥
𝛼 𝑥 𝑑𝑈 𝑡 𝑐 𝑑𝑈
𝑈 = 𝑈 =
𝑐 𝑑𝜏 𝛼 𝑑𝜏

𝑥 𝛼 𝛼
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=¿ 𝑒 𝑐
𝜏
or 𝑒 −
𝑐
𝜏

( )
𝛼 𝛼
𝜏 − 𝜏
𝑥
𝑈 ( 𝜏 )=𝑘1 𝑒 𝑐
−𝑒 𝑐
 Law of physics:
2 2
Choose an initial condition: ( 𝑈 ( 𝜏 ) ) − ( 𝑈 ( 𝜏 ) ) =𝑐
𝑡 𝑥 2

start with zero speed. enforce this at …

when .
Choose an initial condition:
start with zero speed.
when .
 (spacelike)

⃗ ⃗
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝑈 ) =+𝑐 2

(timelike)

⃗ ⃗
( 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 2

(spacelike)
 𝑐𝑡

are initial conditions…

𝜏=0
𝑘𝑡 =𝑘𝑥 =0 𝜏=0 𝑥
𝜏=0
 (spacelike)

⃗ ⃗
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝑈 ) =+𝑐 2

(timelike)

⃗ ⃗
( 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 2

(spacelike)
Constant Proper Acceleration:
⃗ ⃗
𝑐𝑡
( 𝐴⋅ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 2
𝜏 >0
Initial Conditions: is Rindler’s
proper time.

𝜏=0
𝑥
Equations of motion:

𝜏 <0
Constant Proper Acceleration:
⃗ ⃗
𝑐𝑡
( 𝐴⋅ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 2
𝜏 >0
Initial Conditions:

𝜏=0
𝑥
Equations of motion:

𝜏 <0
Constant Proper Acceleration:
⃗ ⃗
𝑐𝑡
( 𝐴⋅ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 2
𝜏 >0
Initial Conditions:

𝜏=0
𝑥
Equations of motion:

𝜏 <0
 Rindler Horizon
Wolfgang Rindler
(1924 – 2019)
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡

𝑥
stationary accelerating
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡
Rindler is
outrunning
light!!
𝑥

)
m
ea
tb
gh
(li
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡
Beams of light sent from inside
shaded region will never reach
Rindler.

Everything behind the Rindler

Horizon is complete darkness to 𝑥
Rindler.

(Similar to a black hole.)

)
m
ea
Nothing behind Rindler Horizon
tb
can ever get back out. gh
(li
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡
The Rindler Horizon is,
ultimately, artificial.

As soon as the accelerated

observer stops accelerating,
it can receive light signals
again.

Black hole horizons cannot be

removed by changing
reference frames. 𝑥
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡
Question: How far behind Rindler

)
~

on
is the Rindler Horizon? ⃗
𝑒𝑡

riz
Ho
~

er
⃗𝑥
𝑒

dl
in
Distance to horizon ~

(R
⃗
𝑒 𝑡~
in Rindler’s frame ⃗𝑥
𝑒

~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑥
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡
Question: How far behind Rindler

)
~

on
is the Rindler Horizon? ⃗
𝑒𝑡

riz
Ho
~

er
⃗𝑥
𝑒

dl
in
⃗
~

(R
𝑆
⃗
𝑒 𝑡~
⃗𝑥
𝑒

~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑥
 (spacelike)

⃗ ⃗
( 𝑈 ⋅ 𝑈 ) =+𝑐 2

(timelike)

⃗ ⃗
( 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴 ) =−𝛼 2

(spacelike)
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡 Light pulse is “frozen”
in space according ~to
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
Question: How far behind Rindler accelerating observer.⃗ 𝑒𝑥
is the Rindler Horizon?
~
⃗

)
𝑒𝑡

on
riz
~

Ho
⃗𝑥
𝑒

er
dl
~
(spacelike)

in
⃗
𝑒 𝑡~

(R
⃗𝑥
𝑒
Proper Length: ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
is always at all times . ⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑥
Distance to origin stays the same.
(in Rindler’s frame)
 Distance gets Distance
larger and larger. stays constant.
𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑡
~
⃗ ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
𝑒𝑡
⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑥
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒𝑡
~
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒 𝑡~
⃗
𝑒𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑥
𝑥 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑥
Special Relativity Postulates
1. Laws of physics are the same in all
inertial reference frames
2. Speed of light in a vacuum is the same
in all inertial reference frames

In NON-INERTIAL reference frames,

the speed of light can have different values.
Rindler Horizon 𝑐𝑡
~
Rindler will never see anything ⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗𝑥
𝑒
cross the Rindler Horizon.

)
on
~

riz
⃗
𝑒𝑡

Ho
Time Dilation becomes so

er
~

dl
⃗𝑥
𝑒

in
great that the object

(R
“freezes” before it crosses ~
⃗
𝑒 𝑡~
the Rindler Horizon ⃗𝑥
𝑒

~
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 𝑥
 ~
Time dilation formula: 𝑐𝑡 ⃗
𝑒
𝛾 →𝑒
𝑡
~
∞𝑥
⃗

𝛾 =5
~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
~
𝑒⃗𝑥

𝛾 =2
as … ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
then: ~
⃗
𝑒 𝑥
𝛾 =1 𝑥
 ~
⃗
𝑒𝑡
A curved worldline is
~ ~ like a series of
⃗ ⃗𝑥
𝑒
𝑒𝑡 instantaneous inertial
~ ~ frames.
⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗𝑥
𝑒
is tangent to
the worldline.
~
⃗𝑥
𝑒 is orthogonal
Constant Acceleration in Special Relativity
1. Prove that 4-velocity and 4-acceleration are orthogonal

2. Choose constant proper acceleration

~ 𝑦 ~ 𝑧
𝐴 = 𝐴 =0
3. Equations of motion (hyperbola)
Initial Conditions:
Rindler Horizon
For accelerating observer…
Rindler Horizon located at
for all times .
𝑐𝑡
Light beams sent on
the horizon appear
frozen in space to the
accelerated observer.

No light arrives from

𝑥
behind the Rindler Horizon.
Space beyond it appears

)
m
ea
completely black.
tb
gh
(li