Relativity 107:

General Relativity Basics

a. Equivalence Principle
b. Manifolds
c. Curvature of Spacetime
d. Newton-Cartan Theory (Curved Newtonian Gravity)
e. Energy–Momentum Tensor
f. Einstein Field Equations
Special Relativity Equivalence
(Flat Spacetime) Principle

“Gravity is different
than the other forces”

Need Curved Spacetime General

to describe Gravity
(Tidal Forces) Relativity!
 Special Relativity (1905)
• Speed of light in vacuum
constant in all inertial frames
• Ignores Gravity
General Relativity (1915)
• A theory of gravity based on
“equivalence principle”
• local gravitation = acceleration
• Takes Gravity into account

• Flat spacetime • Curved spacetime

(relativity 104/105)
Link between S.R. and G.R.:
Equivalence
Principle
What is the “Equivalence Principle”?

There are 3 versions:

1. Weak Equivalence Principle (WEP)
2. Einstein Equivalence Principle (EEP)
3. Strong Equivalence Principle (SEP)
What is the “Equivalence Principle”?
Simplified Answer:
“In small regions of spacetime,
You cannot tell the difference
between upward acceleration
and downward gravity.”
 gravity
acceleration
 gravity
acceleration
Observer floating
outside rocket

time
Observer floating
outside rocket
Observer floating
outside rocket

Observer inside
rocket
 Newton’s 2nd Law
(Inertial mass )
⃗ ⃗
𝐹 =𝑚𝑖 𝑎
Newton’s Law of Gravity
(Gravitational mass )

All experiments show: 𝑚𝑖 ≡𝑚 𝑔

Object’s acceleration
due to gravity is
independent of its mass.
Object’s acceleration is
independent of its
size/shape/mass.

gravity

(ignoring air resistance)

 Object’s acceleration is
Size/shape/mass do not independent of its
play a role in collision. size/shape/mass.

gravity

acceleration

(ignoring air resistance)

Newton’s 2nd Law

Coulomb’s Law +¿
+¿ +¿+¿ +¿
+¿
+¿

−−
−−−−
−−
Newton’s 2nd Law

Coulomb’s Law +¿
+¿ +¿+¿ +¿
+¿
+¿

−−
−−−−
−−
 Equivalence Principle:
“Accelerated” (non-inertial) reference frames are
indistinguishable from standing on ground a local gravitational field.

gravity
acceleration
 Equivalence Principle:
“Accelerated” (non-inertial) reference frames are
indistinguishable from standing on ground a local gravitational field.

gravity
acceleration
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.

Box + Ball Box + Ball

inertial in
in space Free-fall
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.

Box + Ball Box + Ball

inertial in
in space Free-fall
 Observer On
Ground

time
Observer On
Ground
Observer On
Ground

Observer In
Free-Fall with
box/ball
 Equivalence Principle:
“Accelerated” (non-inertial) reference frames are
indistinguishable from standing on ground a local gravitational field.

gravity
acceleration
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.

Box + Ball Box + Ball

inertial in
in space Free-fall
 Equivalence Principle:
• “Accelerated” (non-inertial) reference frames are indistinguishable
from standing on ground a local gravitational field.
• “Inertial” reference frames are locally indistinguishable from free-
fall in a gravitational field.

How to get real mathematics:

• Proper Acceleration
• Measured with an accelerometer
 acceleration

Feeling of being
pulled back
• This is “proper acceleration”
Proper Acceleration :
• Acceleration measured by an observer in their
own reference frame relative to an inertial frame
• Measured with an accelerometer

• Rigid Outer Box

• Inner Ball
• (electrically/magnetically neutral)
• balanced on springs
• Spring compression measures
• larger compression = larger
Accelerometers…
“constant velocity” Relative!
(depends on reference frame/
“acceleration” coordinate system)

“inertial observer”
proper acceleration Objective!
(agreed on by all reference
“non-inertial observer” frames / coordinate systems)
proper acceleration
Proper Acceleration
• Objective number
• Agreed on by all reference frames
2
10 𝑚/ 𝑠 Their accelerometer reads
My acceler-
ometer reads
Their accelerometer reads

Their accelerometer reads

an is “Invariant” (“Tensor”)
Rope
Force
 Rope S Magnet
Force N Force

𝛼> 0
 Rope S Magnet
Force N Force

𝛼> 0
 Rope S Magnet
Force N Force

𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0
 Rope S Magnet Rocket
Force N Force Force

𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0
 Rope S Magnet Rocket
Force N Force Force

𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0

 Rope S Magnet Rocket
Force N Force Force

𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0

 Rope S Magnet Rocket Gravitational
Force N Force Force Force

𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0 𝛼=0

 Rope S Magnet Rocket Gravitational
Force N Force Force Force

(Gravity is different
because it acts on
the box and the ball
equally)

𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0 𝛼> 0 𝛼=0

 Gravitational
Force

(Just like in
Inertial Frames) (Gravity is different
because it acts on
the box and the ball
equally)

𝛼=0 𝛼=0
Because free-fall does not result in proper acceleration…
make an important change: “gravity is not a force”
free-fall is just the natural motion of all objects
Newton’s 1st Law:
• in an inertial frame, an object with no net external
forces acting on it will remain at constant velocity

Newton’s 1st Law for General Relativity:

• object with no net forces acting on it will travel along a
curve called a time-like geodesic (see relativity 105f)
Timelike geodesic = path in spacetime
of massive particle in free-fall
(only influenced by gravity)

proper acceleration
(zero forces acting)
 Need net external force to
change a particle’s trajectory
away from a geodesic

⃗
𝐹
Force causes proper acceleration
change path away from a geodesic
4-force required to cause 4-acceleration .
4-acceleration changes worldline away from geodesic.

⃗
𝐹
An object in free-fall will travel along geodesics.

Free-fall = only influenced by gravity and no other forces.

Newtonian Physics: General Relativity:
normal normal
force force
⃗
𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡 =⃗
0 ⃗
𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≠ ⃗
0

force of Geodesic/
gravity Molecular
forces Free-fall
preventing Path
free-fall
Sitting on Earth
 Sitting on Earth

𝛼> 0

Ground forcing Geodesic/

the box upward. Free-fall
Path
 Rope S Magnet
Sitting on Earth
Force N Force

𝛼> 0
Rocket Sitting on earth has a lot in common with
Force being in a non-inertial frame with a force
acting on the box.

In both cases, proper acceleration ,

𝛼> 0 and the observer feels “pulled” in one

direction.
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.

“small/local regions “uniform

of spacetime” gravitational field”
Real gravitational fields are not uniform:
Newtonian 𝐹 =𝐺 𝑚𝑀 big weaker
2
Gravity 𝑟 small stronger
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.

In large enough regions of spacetime, we can

tell the difference between global inertial
frames far from gravity source, and freely-
falling near gravity sources.
We can tell the difference because of tidal forces.
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.
Box + Ball Box + Ball
inertial in space in Free-fall
 Equivalence Principle:
“Inertial” reference frames are locally
indistinguishable from free-fall in a gravitational field.
Box + Ball Box + Ball
inertial in space in Free-fall
(Think in terms of Newtonian Forces for now…)
(Think in terms of Newtonian Forces for now…)
(Think in terms of Newtonian Forces for now…)

Tidal forces
 Tidal forces from the
moon acting on the
water on Earth.

Sea water
Not being repelled!! Tidal forces from the
(just not pulled as strongly)
moon acting on the
water on Earth.

Sea water
 Tidal forces can’t be explained by Flat Spacetime/Special Relativity!
constant fictitious free fall
accel. force Tidal forces
 Tidal forces can’t be explained by Flat Spacetime/Special Relativity!

free fall
We need a new version of Tidal forces
relativity that can handle
tidal forces
• General Relativity!
• Describes tidal forces
using curved spacetime
Relativity 107:
General Relativity Basics
a. Equivalence Principle
b. Manifolds
c. Curvature of Spacetime
d. Newton-Cartan Theory (Curved Newtonian Gravity)
e. Energy–Momentum Tensor
f. Einstein Field Equations
Summary
An observer’s proper acceleration is agreed on by all reference
frames (objective/invariant/tensor)
• is measured by an accelerometer in observer’s frame
• accelerometer = box + ball on springs

𝛼=0 𝛼> 0
Summary
Equivalence principle:
• Inertial motion locally indistinguishable from free-fall under
the influence of gravity ()
• Non-inertial motion (due to force) is locally indistinguishable
from standing on a gravitational mass ()
𝛼=0 𝛼> 0
𝛼=0 𝛼> 0
Summary
Spacetime worldlines with are called time-like geodesics
• All “free-fall” motion (falling, orbiting) is along geodesics
• Deviation from geodesic requires forces that cause
Geodesic

⃗
𝐹
Force causes
Summary
Real sources of gravity are non-uniform and result in “tidal forces”
• Impossible to explain using flat spacetime (special relativity)
• We need curved spacetime (general relativity) to explain tidal
forces and gravity