Chapter 4 Linear Transformations

Chapter 4
Linear Transformations
( 感謝中華大學資訊工程系李建興老師免費提供講義母本 )
4.1 Definition and Examples
Definition
A mapping L from a vector space V into a vector Space
W is said to be a linear transformation if
L(v1 + v2) = L(v1) + L(v2) (1)
for all v1, v2  V and for all scalars  and .
2
• If L is a linear transformation mapping a vector space V
into W, from (1) we get
L(v1 + v2) = L(v1) + L(v2) ( =  = 1) (2)
L(v) = L(v) (v = v1,  = 0) (3)
• Conversely, if L satisfies (2) and (3), then
L(v1 + v2) = L(v1) + L(v2) (from(2))
= L(v1) + L(v2) (from(3))
L is a linear transformation if and only if L satisfies (2)
and (3).
3
Notation
• A mapping L from a vector space V into a vector

space W will be denoted
L: V  W
• If the vector space V and W are the same, the linear
transformation
L: V  V
is referred to as a linear operator on V.
A linear operator is a linear transformation that maps
a vector space V into itself.
4
Linear Transformations on R2
Example 1
• Let L be the operator defined by L(x) = 3x, for each x
 R2.
• Sol:
Since L(x) = 3(x) = (3x) = L(x)
and L(x+y) = 3(x+y) = 3x + 3y = L(x) + L(y)
 L is a linear transformation
5
Figure 4.1.1
6
Example 2
• Consider the mapping L defined by L(x) = x1e1 for

each x = (x1, x2)T  R2.
• Sol:
If x = (x1, x2)T, then L(x) = x1e1 = x1 (1, 0)T = (x1, 0)T
If y = (y1, y2)T, then
  x1   y1     αx1  βy1   αx1  βy1 
L(αx  βy )  L α    β     L      
x
  2 y
 2  2αx  βy 2  0 
αx1   βy1   x1   y1 
       α    β    αL(x)  βL (y )
 0   0  0 0
 L is a linear transformation.
7
Figure 4.1.2
8
Example 3
• Let L be the operator defined by L(x) = (x1, –x2)T for

each x = (x1, x2)T in R2.
• Sol:
For each x = (x1, x2)T and y = (y1, y2)T
  x1   y1     αx1  βy1    αx1  βy1 
L(αx  βy )  L α    β     L      
x
  2 y
 2  2αx  βy 2   ( αx 2  βy )
2 
 αx1   βy1   x1   y1 
     α   β   αL (x)  βL(y )
 αx 2   βy 2   x 2   y 2 
 L is a linear operator.
9
Figure 4.1.3
10
Example 4
• Let L be the operator defined by L(x) = (–x2, x1)T for

each x = (x1, x2)T in R2.
• Sol:
  x1   y1     αx1  βy1    (αx 2  βy 2 )
L(αx  βy )  L α    β     L      
x
  2 y
 2  2αx  βy 2  αx 1  βy 1
 αx 2   βy 2   x 2   y 2 
     α   β   αL (x)  βL (y )
 αx1   βy1   x1   y1 
11
Figure 4.1.4
12
Linear Transformations from Rn to Rm
Example 5
• L: R2  R1 defined by L(x) = x1 + x2
• Sol:
  x1   y1     αx1 βy1  
L(αx  βy )  L α    β     L   
 x2   y2     α x 2 β y 2  
 αx1 βy1 αx 2 βy 2
 α ( x1  x 2 )  β ( y1 y 2 )  αL(x)  βL(y )
13
Example 6
• Consider the mapping M defined by M(x) = (x12 +

x22)1/2.
• Sol:   x1     αx1  
M (αx)  M  α     M      (αx1 ) 2  (αx 2 ) 2 
1/ 2
Since:  x2    αx 2  

 | α | ( x12  x22 )1/2
αM (x)  α ( x12  x22 )1/2
 M(x)  M(x) whenever  < 0

 M is not a linear transformation.
14
Example 7
• L: R2  R3 defined by L(x) = (x2, x1, x1+x2)T.

• Sol:  αx 2   x2 
  x1     αx1   
L(αx)  L α     L     αx1   α  x1   αL(x)
 x2    αx 2   αx  αx   
 1 2
  x1  x 2 
  x1   y1     x1  y1  
L(x  y )  L        L   
 x2   y2    x2  y2  
 x2  y2   x2   y2 
 x1  y1    x    y   L ( x)  L ( y )
   1   1 
 x1  y1 x 2  y 2   x1  x 2   y1 y 2 
15
0 1 
 
• Note that if we define the matrix A by A  1 0
1 1
0 1   x2 
 x1  
• Then Lx  1 0     x1   A(x)
 
 x2 
1 1  x1  x2 
for each x  R2.
16
• In general, if A is any mn matrix, we can define a
linear transformation LA from Rn to Rm by
LA(x) = Ax for each x  Rn
• The transformation LA is linear since
LA(x + y) = A(x + y) =  Ax +  Ay
=  LA(x) +  LA(y)
• We can think of each mn matrix as defining a linear
transformation from Rn to Rm.
17
Linear Transformations from V to W
• If L is a linear transformation mapping a vector

space V into a vector space W, then
(1) L(0V) = 0W (where 0V and 0W are zero vectors in V and
W)
(2) L(1v1 + 2v2 + … + nvn)
= 1L(v1) + 2L(v2) + … + nL(vn)
(3) L(-v) = -L(v) for all v  V.
18
Example 8
• If V is any vector space, then the identity operator I is

define by
I(v) = v, for all v  V
• Sol:
I (v1 + v2) = v1 + v2 =  I(v1) +  I(v2)
I is a linear transformation that maps V into itself.
19
Example 9
• Let L be the mapping from C[a, b] to R1 defined by

b
L( f )   f ( x)dx
a
If f and g are any vectors in C[a, b], then

b
L( f   g )   ( f   g )( x)dx
a
b b
   f ( x)dx    g ( x)dx   L( f )   L( g )
a a
Therefore, L is a linear transformation.
20
Example 10
• Let D be the linear transformation mapping C1[a, b]

into C[a, b] and defined by
D(f) = f’ (the derivative of f)
D is a linear transformation, since
D(f + g) = f’ + g’ = D(f) + D(g)
21
The Image and Kernel
Definition
Let L: V  W be a linear transformation. The kernel of
L, denoted ker(L), is define by
ker(L) = {v  V | L(v) = 0W}
0W
ker(L)
L
V
W
22
Definition
Let L: V  W be a linear transformation and let S be a

subspace of V. The image of S, denoted L(S), is defined
by
L(S) = {w  W | w = L(v) for some v  S}
The image of the entire vector space, L(V), is called the
range of L.
23
Range
L(S) of L
S
L(V)
L
V
V L
W
W
24
Theorem 4.1.1
If L: V  W is a linear transformation and S is a

subspace of V, then
(1) ker(L) is a subspace of V
(2) L(S) is a subspace of W
25
Theorem 4.1.1 proof
(1) by C1: If v  ker(L) and  is a scalar  L(v) = 0W

L(v) =  L(v) = 0W = 0W
 v  ker(L)
by C2: If v1 and v2  ker(L)  L (v1) = L (v2) = 0W,
then
L(v1 + v2) = L (v1) + L (v2) = 0W + 0W = 0W
 v1 + v2  ker(L)
ker(L) is a subspace of V.
26
Theorem 4.1.1 proof
(2) by C1: If w  L(S), then w = L(v) for some v  S

w = L(v) = L(v)
Since S is a subspace  v  S
 w  L(S)
by C2: If w1 and w2  L(S), then there exist v1 and v2
 S such that
L(v1) = w1 and L(v2) = w2
 w1+w2 = L(v1) + L(v2) = L(v1+v2)
27
Theorem 4.1.1 proof
Since S is a subspace  v1+v2  S

 w1+w2  L(S)
L(S) is a subspace of L.
28
Example 11
 x1 
• L: R2  R2 defined by L(x) =  0 
 
• If x  Ker(L), i.e.,
  x1    x1  0 
L(x)  L        0   
 x2    0  0 
• Thus, x1 = 0,
0 0 
{ }  x2    x2e 2
ker(L) = x 2  1 
• Thus, ker(L) is a one-dimensional subspace of R2
spanned by e2. The range of L, L(R2), is a one-
dimensional subspace of R2 spanned by e1.
29
Example 12
 x1 x 2 
• L: R  R defined by L(x) = 
3 2

x 
 2 3x
and let S be the subspace of R3 spanned by e1 and e3
(1)If x  ker(L),
Therefore, x1 + x2 = 0 and x2 + x3 = 0
 x1 
  L  x1  x 2  0
x  x 2     0
   x 2  x 3  0 
 x 3 
30
let x3 = a  x2 = – a and x1 = a
 a  1
{ a  a  R}  {a  1 a  R}
ker(L) =    
 a   1
 ker(L) is a one–dimension subspace of R3.
31
1  0   a 
  0   b 0    0 
(2) If x  S, x = 1
a e b e 3 a
     
0 1 b 
 a  0  a 

Thus, L(x) = 0  b  b   R 2
L(S) = R2, the image of S is R2

 Hence L(R3) = R2, the entire range of L must be R2
32
Example 13
• Let D: P3→P3 be the differentiation operator, defined

by
D(p(x)) = p’(x)
• The kernel of D consists of all polynomials of degree
0. Thus Ker(D) = P1. The derivative of any
polynomial in P3 will be a polynomial of degree 1 or
less.
33
• Conversely, any polynomial in P2 will have
antiderivatives in P3, so each polynomial in P2 will be
the image of polynomials in P3 under the operator D.
It then follows that D(P3) = P2.
34
4.2 Matrix Representations of
Linear Transformations
• Each mn matrix A defines a linear transformation LA
from Rn to Rm, where
LA(x) = Ax
for each x  Rn.
35
Theorem 4.2.1
If L is a linear transformation mapping Rn into Rm, there

is an mn matrix A such that
L(x) = Ax
for each x  Rn. In fact, the jth column vector of A is
given by
aj = L(ej), j = 1, 2, …, n
36
Theorem 4.2.1 proof
 a11 a12  a1n 
a a22  a2 n 
• Let A =  21 = (aij) = (a1, a2, …, an)
   
 
 am1 am 2  amn 
• where aj = (a1j, a2j, …, amj)T is defined to be L(ej),

j = 1, 2, …, n
• If x = (x1, x2, …, xn)T = x1e1 + x2e2 + … + xnen is any
element of Rn, then
37
Theorem 4.2.1 proof
• L(x) = L(x1e1 + x2e2 + … + xnen)

= x1L(e1) + x2L(e2) + … + xnL(en)
= x1a1 + x2a2x+… + xnan
1
x 
(a1 , a 2 , ..., a n )  2 
=  
x 
 n
= Ax
38
Note
• A  a1 a 2  a n   L(e1 ) L(e 2 )  L(e n )
• A is referred to as the standard matrix representation

of L
• Note that L(x) =[L(x)]B , where B is the standard basis.
39
Example 1
• L: R3  R2 defined by L(x) =(x1+ x2, x2+x3) for each x

= (x1, x2, x3)T in R3.
• Sol:
• Let L(x) = Ax 1 
  1  0  1 
a1  L(e1 )  L( 0 )   
  0  0 0
0
0 
  0  1 1
a 2  L(e 2 )  L( 1 )   
  1  0 1
0
40
0 
  0  0  0 
a 3  L(e3 )  L( 0 )     
   0  1  1 
1
1 1 0 
 A = (a1, a2, a3) = 0 1 1
 
To check the result, compute Ax
 x1 
1 1 0    x1  x2 
Ax    x2   
 0 1 1    x  x
 2 3
 x3 
41
Example 2
• Let L: R2  R2 which rotates each vector by an angle

 in the counterclockwise direction. Find the standard
matrix representation of L.
• Sol:
• Let L(x) = Ax
Since a1 = L(e1) = (cos, sin)T, and
a2 = L(e2) = (–sin, cos)T
cos θ  sin θ 
A  (a1,a 2 )   
  sin θ cos θ 
42
Figure 4.2.1
43
Question
• How to find a similar representation for linear

transformations from an n-dimensional vector space
V into an m-dimensional vector space W?
44
• Let E = {v1, v2, …, vn} and F = {w1, w2, …, wm} be
ordered bases for vector spaces V and W, and L be a
linear transformation mapping V into W. If v  V,
then v can be expressed in terms of the basis E:
v = x1v1 + x2v2 + … + xnvn
• There exists an mn matrix A representing the linear
transformation L and characterizing the effect of L:
Ax = y iff L(v) = y1w1 + y2w2 + … + ymwm
45
• If x is the coordinate vector of v w. r. t. (with respect
to) E, then the coordinate vector of L(v) w. r. t. F, i.e.,
y, is given by:
y = [L(v)]F = Ax
46
How to determine the matrix
representation A?
• Let aj = (a1j, a2j, …, amj)T be the coordinate vector of
L(vj) w. r. t. F = {w1, w2, …, wm}, j = 1 , 2 , … , n
L(vj) = a1jw1 + a2jw2 + … + amjwm 1jn
• Let A = (aij) = (a1, a2, …, an). If
v = x1v1 + x2v2 + … + xnvn
then
L(v) = L(x1v1 + x2v2 + … + xnvn)
= x1L(v1) + x2L(v2) + … + xnL(vn)
47
n n
 m

   x j L(v j )     x j ( aij w i ) 
j 1 j 1  i 1 
m  n  
     aij x j  w i 

i 1   j 1

 
n

• Let yi   aij x j  ai x, for i  1, 2, ..., m
j 1
y = (y1, y2, …, ym)T = Ax is the coordinate vector of

L(v) w. r. t. {w1, w2, …, wm}.
48
Theorem 4.2.2
(Matrix Representation Theorem)

If E = {v1, v2, …, vn} and F = {w1, w2, …, wm} are
ordered bases for vector spaces V and W, respectively,
then corresponding to each linear transformation L: V
 W there is an mn matrix A such that
[L(v)]F = A [v]E for each v  V
A is the matrix representing L relative to the ordered
bases E and F. In fact,
aj = [L(vj)]F j = 1, 2, … , n
49
Figure 4.2.2
50
x = [v]E: the coordinate vector of v with respect to E
y = [w]F: the coordinate vector of w with respect to F
 L maps v into w iff A maps x into y
51
Example 3
• L: R3  R2 defined by
L(x) = x1b1 + (x2 + x3)b2
for each x  R3, where
1  1
b1    and b 2   
1  1
Find the matrix A representing L w. r. t. the ordered

bases {e1, e2, e3} and {b1, b2}.
52
1 
  1 
• Sol: L(e1 )  L( 0 )  1 b1  0  b 2  a1  L(e1 )F   
  0 
0
0 
  0 
L(e 2 )  L( 1 )  0  b1  1  b 2  a 2  L(e 2 )F   
  1 
0
0 
  0 
L(e 3 )  L( 0 )  0  b1  1  b 2  a 3  L(e3 )F   
  1 
1
1 0 0 
 A 
 0 1 1 
53
Example 4
• L: R2  R2 defined by L(b1 + b2) = ( + )b1 +

2b2 , where {b1, b2} is the ordered basis defined in
Example 3. Find the matrix A representing L w. r. t.
{b1, b2}.
• Sol:
• L(b1) = L(1b1 + 0b2) = (1+0)b1 + (20)b2
= 1b1 + 0b2 a1 = [L(b1)]F = (1, 0)T
54
• L(b2) = L(0b1 + 1b2) = (0+1)b1 + (21)b2
= 1b1 + 2b2  a2 = [L(b2)]F = (1, 2)T
1 1 
 A=  
0 2 
55
Example 5
• The linear transformation D defined by D(p) = p’

maps P3 into P2. Given the ordered bases [x2, x, 1] and
[x, 1] for P3 and P2, respectively, we wish to
determine a matrix representation for D. To do this,
we apply D to each of the basis elements of P3:
D ( x 2 )  2 x  0 1
D ( x )  0 x  1 1
D(1)  0 x  0 1
56
• In P2, the coordinate vectors dor D(x2), D(x), and
D(1) are (2, 0)T, (0, 1)T, and (0, 0)T, respectively. The
matrix A is formed with these vectors as its columns.
 2 0 0
A 
0 1 0
• If p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, then the coordinate vector of p

with respect to the ordered basis of P3 is (a, b, c)T.
57
• To find the coordinate vector of D(p) with respect to
the ordered basis of P2, we simply multiply
a 
 2 0 0    2a 
0 1 0 b    b 
   
 
c
• Thus,
D(ax2 + bx + c) = 2ax + b
58
Theorem 4.2.3
Let E = [u1, u2, …, un] and F = [b1, b2, …, bm] be

ordered bases for Rn and Rm, respectively. If L: Rn  Rm
is a linear transformation and A is the matrix
representing L with respect to E and F, then
aj = B-1L(uj) for j = 1, 2, …, n
where B = (b1, b2, …, bm).
59
Theorem 4.2.3 proof
• If A is representing L with respect to E and F, then for

j = 1, 2, …, n
L(uj) = a1jb1 + a2jb2 + … + amjbm
 a1 j 
(Note: aj = [L(uj)]F)
a 
(b1 , b 2 , ..., b m )    Ba j
2j
=  : 
a 
 mj 
 aj = B-1L(uj) for j = 1, 2, …, n
60
Corollary 4.2.4
If A is the matrix representing the linear transformation

L: Rn  Rm with respect to the bases E = [u1, u2, …, un]
and F = [b1, b2, …, bm], then the reduced row echelon
form of (b1, b2, …, bm | L(u1), … , L(un)) is (I | A).
61
Corollary 4.2.4 proof
• Let B = (b1, b2, …, bm)

The matrix (B| L(u1), … , L(un)) is row equivalent to
B-1 (B| L(u1), … , L(un))
= ( I | B-1L(u1), … , B-1L(un))
= ( I | a1, a2, …, an)
= ( I | A)
62
Example 6
 x2 
• Let L: R2  R3 defined by L(x)   x1  x 2 
 x1  x 2 
Find the matrix representation of L with respect to the
ordered bases [u1, u2] and [b1, b2, b3], where
1  1  1
1  3
u1   , u 2    and b1  0, b 2  1, b 3  1.
 2 1     
0 0 1
63
Example 6
 2   2
1  
• Sol: L(u1 )  L(   )  1  2   3
 2    
1  2  1
 1  1 
3 
L(u 2 )  L(   )  3  1  4
1    
3  1 2
1 1 1 2 1 1 0 0  1  3
( B | L(u1 ) L(u 2 ))  0 1 1 3 4  0 1 0 4 2
   
0 0 1  1 2 0 0 1  1 2
 1  3
 A 4 2
 
 1 2
64
Verification
 1 4 1  2
L(u1 )  b1  4b 2  b 3   0  4  1   3
      
 0 0 1  1
 3 2 2 1 
L(u 2 )  3b1  2b 2  2b 3   0  2  2  4
       
 0 0 2 2
65
Application: Computer Graphics
and Animation
• A picture with n vertices can be stored in a 2n
matrix. The x coordinates of the vertices are stored in
the first row and the y coordinates in the second. Each
successive pair of points is connected by a straight
line.
 x1 x2  xn x1 
T  
 y1 y2  y n y1 
66
Figure 4.2.3(a)
• An example: a triangle with 3 vertices (0, 0), (1, 1)

and (1, -1) are stored in a matrix:
0 1 1 0 
T  
0 1  1 0 
67
• Four primary geometric transformations that are used
in computer graphics are: dilations and
contractions, reflection about an axis, rotation,
translation
68
• Dilations and Contractions: a linear transformation
of the form
L(x) = cx
is a dilation if c > 1 and a contraction if 0 < c < 1.
• The transformation L is represented by the matrix A =
cI, where I is the 22 identity matrix.
 c 0  0 1 1 0  0 c c 0
AT       
 0 c  0 1  1 0   0 c  c 0 
69
Figure 4.2.3(b)
70
• Reflection about an axis: If Lx is a transformation that
reflects a vector about the x-axis, then Lx is a linear
operator and can be represented by a 22 matrix A.
• Since
Lx(e1) = e1 and Lx(e2) = –e2 (Note: Lx(x) = (x1, -
x2)T)
 A = (a1, a2) = (Lx(e1), Lx(e2))
 1 0
= (e1, -e2) = 0 1
 
71
Figure 4.2.3(c)
• Similarly, if Ly is a linear transformation that reflects

a vector about the y-axis, then Ly is represented by a
22 matrix A.
72
  1 0
  A 
 0 1
(Note: Ly(x) = (-x1, x2)T)
  1 0  0 1 1 0  0  1  1 0 
AT      
 0 1 0 1  1 0 0 1  1 0
73
• Rotations: Let L be a transformation that rotates a
vector about the origin by an angle  in the
counterclockwise direction. In fact, L is linear
transformation and that L(x) = Ax where
cos θ  sin θ 
A 
 sin θ cos θ 
cos θ  sin θ  0 1 1 0
AT    0 1 - 1 0 
 sin θ cos θ  
0 cos θ  sin θ cos θ  sin θ 0

 0 sin θ  cos θ sin θ  cos θ 0
74
Figure 4.2.3(d)
75
• Translations: A translation by a vector a is a
transformation of the form
L(x) = x + a
If a  0, L is not a linear transformation and hence L
cannot be represented by a 22 matrix.
76
Homogeneous Coordinates Systems
• Homogeneous Coordinates Systems – equating

each vector in R2 with a vector in R3 having the same
first two coordinates and 1 as its third coordinate:
 x1 
 x1   
 x    x2 
 2
 1 
77
• The 22 matrix representation can be augmented into
a 33 matrix by attaching the third row and third
column of the identity matrix I:
c 0 0 c 0 0  x1   cx1 
 c 0    0 c 0  x   cx 

0 c   0 c 0
      2
  2

0 0 1 0 0 1  1   1 
78
• If L is a translation by a vector a in R2, the matrix
representation can be formed by replacing the first
two entries in the last column of the identity matrix I
with the entries of a:
1 0 0 1 0 a1  1 0 a1   x1   x1  a1 
0 1 0   0 1 a   0 1 a   x    x  a 
   2
  2
  2  2 2

0 0 1 0 0 1  0 0 1   1   1 
79
4.3 Similarity
• Example: Let L be the linear transformation mapping

R2 into itself defined by
L(x) = (2x1, x1 + x2)T
1   2  0  0 
Since L(e1) = L( 0 )  1 and L(e2) = L( 1 )  1
   
Thus, the matrix representing L w. r. t. [e1, e2] is

 2 0
A 
 1 1 
80
1  1
• If we use u1    and u 2   as the basis for R2, then
1  1
2 0 1 2
L(u1 )  Au1       
1 1 1 2
2 0  1  2
L(u 2 )  Au 2       
1 1  1  0
81
• Since the transition matrix from [u1, u2] to [e1, e2] is
1  1
U  (u1, u 2 )   
1 1
• So the transition matrix from [e1, e2] to [u1, u2] is
 1 1

U 1   12 2
1
 2 2
82
• Then, the coordinates of L(u1) and L(u2) w. r. t. [u1,
u2] is  1 1
  2  2
U 1 L(u1 )   12 2
1  
 
 2 2   2 0 
 1 1
 - 2 - 1
U 1 L(u 2 )   12 2
1    
 2 2  0   1
 L(u1) = 2u1+ 0u2

L(u2) = -1u1+ 1u2 2  1
B 
 0 1
 The matrix representing L w. r. t. [u1, u2] is
83
How are A and B related?
 2  1
• Since 0 = U-1L(u1) = U-1Au1 and  1= U-1L(u2) =
U-1Au2
Hence, B = (U-1Au1, U-1Au2) = U-1A(u1, u2) = U-1AU
84
Conclusion
• If (i) B is the matrix representing L w. r. t. [u1, u2]

(ii) A is the matrix representing L w. r. t. [e1, e2]
(iii) U is the transition matrix corresponding to the
change of basis from
[u1, u2] to [e1, e2]
then B = U-1AU.
85
Theorem 4.3.1
Let E = [v1, v2, …, vn] and F = [w1, w2, …, wn] be two

ordered bases for a vector space V and let L be a linear
operator on V. Let S be the transition matrix
representing the change from F to E. If A is the matrix
representing L w. r. t. E and B is the matrix representing
L w. r. t. F, then B = S-1AS.
86
Theorem 4.3.1 proof
Basis E: [v1, v2, …, vn]
Basis F: [w1, w2, …, wn]
87
• Let x be any vector in Rn and let x = [v]F
v = x1w1 + x2w2 + … + xnwn
• Since S is the transition matrix representing the change from F to
E , y = Sx where y = [v]E
v = y1v1 + y2v2 + … + ynvn
• Since A represents L w. r. t. E and B represents L w. r. t. F, we have
t = [L(v)]E and z = [L(v)]F Furthermore, t = Ay, z = Bx
88
• Since the transition from E to F is S-1, therefore
S-1t = z
• Given that y = Sx, t = Ay, z = Bx
 z =S-1t = S-1Ay = S-1ASx and z = Bx

 Hence S-1AS = B
89
Figure 4.3.2
90
Definition
Let A and B be two nn matrices. B is said to be similar

to A if there exists a nonsingular matrix S such that B =
S-1AS.
91
Note
• B = S-1AS
 SBS-1 = S (S-1AS) S-1
 SBS-1 = A
 A = (S-1)-1B(S-1)
• That is, A is similar to B, we may say that A and B are
similar matrices.
92
Example 1
• Let D be the differentiation operator on P3. Find the

matrix B representing D with respect to [1, x, x2] and
the matrix A representing D with respect to [1, 2x, 4x2
– 2].
• Sol: D(1)  0 1  0  x  0  x 2
D ( x )  1 1  0  x  0  x 2
D ( x 2 )  0 1  2  x  0  x 2
93
0 1 0 
• The matrix B is then given by B  0 0 2
 
0 0 0
• Apply D to 1, 2x, and 4x2 – 2, we obtain

D(1)  0 1  0  2 x  0  (4 x 2  2)
D ( 2 x )  2  1  0  2 x  0  ( 4 x 2  2)
D ( 4 x 2  2)  0  1  4  2 x  0  ( 4 x 2  2)
• Thus
0 2 0 
A  0 0 4 
 
0 0 0
94
• The transition matrix S corresponding to the change
of basis from [1, 2x, 4x2 – 2] to [1, x, x2] and its
inverse are given by
1 1
 0
1 0  2  2
  1
 1 
S 0 2 0 and S  0 0
  2
0 0 4   
0 1
0
 4 
• Can verify that A=S-1BS

95
Example 2
2 2 0
• L: R3  R3 defined by L(x) = Ax, where A  1 1 2
1 1 2
• Thus the matrix A represents L with respect to [e1, e2, e3]

• Find the matrix representing L with respect to [y1, y2, y3]
where  1   2 1
y1   1, y 2   1, y 3  1
    
 0  1 1
96
• Sol: 2 2 0  1 0
L(y1 )  Ay1  1 1 2 - 1  0  0y1  0y 2  0y 3
    
1 1 2  0 0
2 2 0  - 2    2 
L(y 2 )  Ay 2  1 1 2  1   1  0y1  1y 2  0y 3
    
1 1 2  1  1
2 2 0 1 4
L(y 3 )  Ay 3  1 1 2 1  4  0y1  0y 2  4y 3
    
1 1 2 1 4
97
• Thus the matrix representing L with respect to [y1, y2,
y3] is
0 0 0 
D  0 1 0 
 
0 0 4
98
• Try to verify D = S-1AS
S: the transition matrix from [y1, y2, y3] to [e1, e2, e3]
 1 2 1
 S  ( y1 , y 2 , y 3 )   1 1 1
 
 0 1 1
0  1 1 2 2 0  1  2 1 0 0 0
 S 1 AS   13  13 23  1 1 2   1 1 1  0 1 0  D
     
 3
1 1
3 3
1
 1 1 2  0 1 1 0 0 4
99

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Chapter 4

• A mapping L from a vector space V into a vector

• Consider the mapping L defined by L(x) = x1e1 for

• Let L be the operator defined by L(x) = (x1, –x2)T for

• Let L be the operator defined by L(x) = (–x2, x1)T for

• Consider the mapping M defined by M(x) = (x12 +

Since:  x2    αx 2  

αM (x)  α ( x12  x22 )1/2

 M(x)  M(x) whenever  < 0

• L: R2  R3 defined by L(x) = (x2, x1, x1+x2)T.

for each x  R2.

• If L is a linear transformation mapping a vector

• If V is any vector space, then the identity operator I is

• Let L be the mapping from C[a, b] to R1 defined by

If f and g are any vectors in C[a, b], then

Therefore, L is a linear transformation.

• Let D be the linear transformation mapping C1[a, b]

Let L: V  W be a linear transformation and let S be a

If L: V  W is a linear transformation and S is a

(1) by C1: If v  ker(L) and  is a scalar  L(v) = 0W

(2) by C1: If w  L(S), then w = L(v) for some v  S

Since S is a subspace  v1+v2  S

 ker(L) is a one–dimension subspace of R3.

L(S) = R2, the image of S is R2

• Let D: P3→P3 be the differentiation operator, defined

If L is a linear transformation mapping Rn into Rm, there

• where aj = (a1j, a2j, …, amj)T is defined to be L(ej),

• L(x) = L(x1e1 + x2e2 + … + xnen)

• A is referred to as the standard matrix representation

• L: R3  R2 defined by L(x) =(x1+ x2, x2+x3) for each x

• Let L: R2  R2 which rotates each vector by an angle

• How to find a similar representation for linear

y = (y1, y2, …, ym)T = Ax is the coordinate vector of

(Matrix Representation Theorem)

Find the matrix A representing L w. r. t. the ordered

• L: R2  R2 defined by L(b1 + b2) = ( + )b1 +

• The linear transformation D defined by D(p) = p’

• If p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, then the coordinate vector of p

Let E = [u1, u2, …, un] and F = [b1, b2, …, bm] be

• If A is representing L with respect to E and F, then for

If A is the matrix representing the linear transformation

• Let B = (b1, b2, …, bm)

• An example: a triangle with 3 vertices (0, 0), (1, 1)

• Similarly, if Ly is a linear transformation that reflects

(Note: Ly(x) = (-x1, x2)T)

• Homogeneous Coordinates Systems – equating

• Example: Let L be the linear transformation mapping

Thus, the matrix representing L w. r. t. [e1, e2] is

• So the transition matrix from [e1, e2] to [u1, u2] is

 L(u1) = 2u1+ 0u2

Hence, B = (U-1Au1, U-1Au2) = U-1A(u1, u2) = U-1AU

• If (i) B is the matrix representing L w. r. t. [u1, u2]

Let E = [v1, v2, …, vn] and F = [w1, w2, …, wn] be two

Basis F: [w1, w2, …, wn]

 z =S-1t = S-1Ay = S-1ASx and z = Bx

Let A and B be two nn matrices. B is said to be similar

• Let D be the differentiation operator on P3. Find the

• Apply D to 1, 2x, and 4x2 – 2, we obtain