Radiographic Anatomy And Physiology

THE HUMAN BODY AND SURFACE

ANATOMY

Prepared by:

Mr. Reynaldo Delos Santos Cabuslay

College of Radiologic Technology
Instructor
 THE DIVISION OF THE BODY

1. The head
2. The neck
3. The trunk
Thorax or chest
Abdomen
Pelvis
4. The limbs or
members
Superior or
upper limb
Inferior or lower
THE BODY CAVITIES
The main body
cavities are
developed as
the
fundamental

 ventral
(anterior), and
 dorsal
(posterior)
cavities:
 1. THE VENTRAL CAVITY

It is formed
as the celom
in front of
the vertebral
column.

It is divided
into the
thoracic,
abdominal,
and pelvic
The Thoracic The thoracic cavity occupies
Cavity the upper part of the trunk and
is enclosed by the chest wall.
Between it and the abdomen is
the double dome-shaped
muscular partition, the
diaphragm.
This muscle is attached at its
base to the inner surface of the
chest wall.
The thoracic cavity is further
divided by the vertical
partition, the mediastinum,
into the right and left pleural
cavities.
 The Abdominal
Cavity

The abdominal
cavity extends
from the inferior
surface of the
diaphragm to the
pelvic bones.
  The pelvic cavity, lying within the
The Pelvic Cavity bony pelvis, is actually continuous
with the abdominal cavity with no
separating partition between the
two.
 Its upper limits are marked by a ridge
of bone that passes around the inner
surface of the pelvic bones.
 Its lower boundary is the floor of the
pelvis, formed by muscles and
ligaments.
 With no partition present to separate
the abdomen and pelvis, part of an
organ may lies in the abdomen and
the remainder in the pelvis.
 Further, the position of an organ may
vary, for instance in the upright and
spine positions.
Its lower boundary is the
floor of the pelvis, formed
by muscles and ligaments.
With no partition present
to separate the abdomen
and pelvis, part of an
organ may lies in the
abdomen and the
remainder in the pelvis.
Further, the position of an
organ may vary, for
instance in the upright
and spine positions.
 Abdominopelvic
Cavity

The Term
Abdominopelvic
Cavity, since it
suggests a single
cavity, might be a
more suitable
term for the
abdominal and
2. THE DORSAL CAVITY
The dorsal cavity lies
within the skull and the
vertebral column.

The Cranial Cavity

Lies within the cranium,
and contains the brain

The Spinal Canal

Extends lengthwise within
the spinal column and
 ABDOMINAL
THORACIC CAVITY CAVITY PELVIC CAVITY
 Pleural  Peritoneum  Rectum
membranes  Liver  Urinary
 Lungs,  Gallbladder bladder
 Trachea  Pancreas  Part of the
 Esophagus  Spleen reproductive
 Pericardium  Stomach system
 Heart and great  Intestines,
vessels except rectum
 Kidneys
 Ureters
 Major blood
vessels
 THE ORGANIZATION OF BODY STRUCTURES
The many parts of the
body are composed of
cells, which are
organized into tissue.
The tissues form
organs which in turns
form the system of
the body.
1. Cells
2. Tissues
3. Organ
4. Systems
 CELLS

The cell is the

unit of structure
and of function
of the body.

Cells are so
small that they
cannot be seen
individually
without the aid
of a microscope.
The entire body
is composed of
many trillions of
cells of varying
shapes and
sizes.

Each cell has its

own function
such as support,
contraction,
transformation,
conduction of
 COMPOSITION OF CELLS
Protoplasm is a The molecules are
name used to made up of atoms of
indicate living oxygen, carbon,
matter. hydrogen and
Each cell of the body nitrogen, with lesser
is composed of amount of sulphur,
protoplasm. phosphorus,
It is made of calcium, chlorine,
compound molecules iodine, magnesium,
which are very sodium,
complex and varied carbohydrates, and
in structure. lipids.
 By these activities they qualify
The nature as living matter. They include
of their respiration, circulation,
digestion, and absorption of
structures
food to produce energy, or the
enables build-up new complex
protoplasmic compounds.
molecules to Included also are the secretion
engage in of new compounds, excretion
activities not of waste, reproduction, and
possible in irritability, the latter results in
inorganic conduction of impulses and
(non-living) contraction with movement.
matters
 STRUCTURE OF CELL MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY
1. The Cell Membrane
2. The Nucleus
a. The chromosomes
b. The nucleolus
3. The Cytoplasm
a. Mitochondria
b. Endoplasmic
reticula
c. Golgibodies
d. Lysosomes
e. Centrosomes
Nucleus is separated
from the cytoplasm by
a nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm is separated
from the surrounding
fluids by a cell
membrane
The nucleus is a
centrally-placed
rounded part of the This membrane
cell that is separated regulates the
the remainder of the passage of materials
cell by the nuclear
into and out of the
membrane.
nucleus.
The nucleus
controls cellular
activity and
contains
chromosomes and a
small rounded
granule, the
nucleolus.

The cell membrane,

also called the
plasma membrane,
is a covering that
It forms a wall to
contain the contents
but is permeable to
water and
molecules, allowing
them to pass in or
out of the cell.

The structure of this

membrane may be
quite complex, and
it may contains
pores (opening).
The chromosomes are
long threadlike
filaments contained
within the nucleus.
Using a light
microscope they
appear to consist of a
single continuous
thread or skein.
Investigation with an
electron chromosomes
in each nucleus of the
cells of the human
body.
The chromosomes
contain proteins and
DNA molecules that
carry genes,
possible 20,000 per
characteristics in
cell division.

Chromosomes are
important factors in
cell division.
The nucleolus is a
rounded body with
the nucleus.
It contains RNA
molecules and
proteins.
Possibly it
manufactures RNA
that is expelled into
the cytoplasm.
They cytoplasm is
that part of a cell
that lies outside of
Under light
microscope many
minute granules are
observed in the
cytoplasm.
Electron microscope
has shown these
granules to be
actually complex
units each
containing some
type of membrane.
These units, also
name organelles.
 Mitochondria

A sausage shaped
bodies the power
plant, with enzymes
producing chemical
reaction that
produce energy.
Endoplasmic reticula
Minute canal that
build up proteins
(synthesize
proteins)
Creates a series of
channels for
transport, stores
enzymes and other
proteins, and
provides a point of
attachment for
ribosomes.
 Golgi Bodies or
Apparatus
Minute vesicle, i.e.
small sacs that
concentrate or
condense
intracellular
materials.
Aids in synthesis of
glycoproteins and
also aids in the
secretion of these
 Lysosomes

Minute droplets
that digest
proteins, etc.

Digest nutrients,
and clean away
dead or damaged
cell parts.
 Centrosomes

Small spherical
bodies containing
two cylinders which
take part in cell
division.

Assist in cell
reproduction and are
involved with the
movement of
chromosomes during
 Intracellular fluid

That fluid within

the cytoplasm and
other granules – of
proteins,
carbohydrates,
fats, pigments etc.,
in the cytoplasm.
 Ribosomes

Are necessary for

synthesis of proteins
from amino acids.

They contain almost

equal amounts of
protein and a special
kind of ribonucleic
acid, ribosomal RNA.
 Microtubules,
Intermediate
Filaments, and
Microfilaments

 Provide a transport
system, a supportive
framework, and
assist with organelle
and chromosome
movement.
 Peroxisomes
Similar to lysosomes physically different in
formed by budding off from the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum

They contain oxidases

rather than hydrolases

Peroxisomes oxididize
many substances that
might otherwise be
poisonous to the cell
Ex. most alcohol that a
person drinks is detoxified
by the peroxisomes of the
liver cells
The hydrogen-peroxide
catalase-oxidizing
mechanism is also used for
specific functional
purposes in the cell such
as catalyzing the
breakdown of fatty acids
into acetyl-CoA that is then
used for energy by the
cell.
 Somatic Cells

Somatic cells are a

term used to include
all cells of the body
except the genetic
cells.
 Genetic Cells

Genetic cells or
reproductive cells
include those
cells that produce
an embryo, the
ovum, or egg in
female and
spermatozoon or
sperm in male.
 TISSUES
Group of similar cells.
As many cells combines
to form a tissue it is
usually visible to the
naked eye.
There are four types of
tissue:
1) Epithelial tissue or
epithelium,
2) Connective tissue,
3) Muscular tissue, and
4) Nerve tissue.
 Epithelial Tissue or
Epithelium
 A thin sheet of tissue
compound of cell cemented
together to form covering
or lining membrane, such as
the skin, covering of a lung,
or lining of a blood vessels
or the intestine, etc.
1) Simple epithelial tissue
2) Stratified
3) Glandular
4) Membranes epithelial
tissue
 Epithelial Tissue or Epithelium
1) Simple epithelial
tissue

2) Stratified epithelial
tissue

3) Glandular epithelial
tissue

4) Membranes
epithelial tissue
 Simple Epithelial Tissue
 Simple epithelium consists of a
single layer of cells cemented
together to form a continuous
sheet.
 It may be composed of flat,
cuboidal, columnar, or polyhedral
cells.
 It forms the linings of blood
vessels and the intestine, the
covering of the heat, lung, etc.
 Simple epithelial tissue
Pavement epithelium
Cuboidal epithelium
Columnar Epithelium
Goblet Cells
 Cuboidal epithelium

 Secreting glands

 A layer of cube-shaped cells

joined together.

Pavement epithelium

 Cobbles; squamous

 Single layer of flat cobbles

stone or tile-Like cells.
 Columnar Epithelium

 Digestive tract – a layer of

cylindrical cells joined
together

Goblet Cells

 shaped like wine goblets,

are found in columnar
epithelium.

 They secrete mucus, a clear

stocky colourless fluid.

 They are found in mucous

membranes of the digestive
tract, etc.
 STRATIFIED

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Stratified e.g. epidermis –  Stratified epithelium consists of

outer skin layer several layers of cells cemented
together to form a membrane.

 The mouth, esophagus, vagina,

skin, and many other structures
have this type of epithelium.
(Stratum = a layer.)

 In stratified squamous
epithelium the outer cells are
scale like, having lost their
cellular form.
 Stratified columnar
epithelium
 Is sometimes ciliated, as in
the larynx and nasal surface
of the soft palate.
 It also found on the moist
surfaces of the pharynx,
urethra, and excretory ducts
of the salivary and
mammary glands.

Stratified cuboidal
epithelium
 This type is found in the
ducts of sweat glands, in
sebaceous glands, and
developing epithelium in
ovaries and testes.
 GLANDULAR

GLANDULAR e.g.
secreting glands
(salivary glands, etc.)

 Are specialized for

the synthesis,
storage, and
secretion of
chemical
substances.
 Endocrine glands
have specialized
secretory cells, but
the glands do not
have ducts.
 Membranes Epithelial
Tissue

Endothelium, Mesothelium, Mucous membrane, Synovial membranes and

Serous membranes

Membranes Epithelial
Tissue

 Endothelium is a type of
simple epithelium with a
single layer of cell forming
the lining of blood vessels.
(Endo=inside).

 It is derived from the Endothelium

mesothelium layer of the Lining of blood vessels.
embryo.
 Mucous membrane
 goblet cells secreting
mucus, e.g. digestive,
respiratory
 Mucous membrane is a
type of simple or stratified
epithelium that contains
goblet cells and secretes
mucus.
Mesothelium  It lines many organs
 See serous(middle layer including the respiratory
embryo) organs, the mouth,
 Mesothelium is another stomach, and intestine.
type of simple single-
layered epithelium that
lines the body cavities,
the pleura, pericardium,
and peritoneum.
 The name meso denotes
its origin from the middle
or mesodermal layer of
the embryo.
 Synovial membrane
 Synovial membrane is a
type of epithelium that lines
joint cavities, bursae, and
the sheaths tendons.
 It secretes an oily
substances that lubricates
the adjacent surface
(synovia = joint oil) Serous membranes
 Oily secretion, lubricating,  Thin watery secretion;
bursa, joint, tendon sheaths lining body cavities, pleura
 Pericardium, peritoneum
 Serous membrane is a type
of simple epithelium that
secretes a thin watery
colourless fluid.
 It is the mesothelium of
the pleura, pericardium,
and the peritoneum.
(Serous = a colourless
fluid).
  Are all varieties of
epithelium.
Endothelium,
Mesothelium,  Epithelium contains nerve
Mucous endings (receptors) but
Membrane, and no blood vessels.
Synovial
 It gives protection,
Membranes manufactures, secretions,
and allows absorption
and excretion.
 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

1. Loose connective
tissue
2. Adipose connective
tissue
3. Fibrous connective
tissue
4. Elastic connective
tissue
5. Cartilage or gristle
connective tissue
a. Hyaline
Cartilage
b.
Fibrocartilage
c. Elastic
Cartilage
6. Bone or osseous
connective tissue
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 The connective
tissues are the
supporting and
binding tissues of
the body.

 Their functions are

to support, connect
or bind other
important tissue
and to fill spaces
within and about
organs.
 Connective tissues
have cell bodies that
are often well
separated by an
intercellular
substance or matrix
that varies with the
type of connective
tissue.
a. Loose connective tissue - Supporting and binding
 Loose (areolar) connective tissue consists
of a semiliquid or jellylike matrix
surrounding well separated cells called
fibroblasts (spindle shaped), histoplasts,
plasma, and mast cells.
 The matrix has a network of loosely
arrange fibers.
 These fibers include wavy white bundles
of fibers containing collagen that yield
gelatine with boiling, and yellow elastic
fibers that are stretchable.
 These fibers are woven into a loosely knit
tissue.
 This kind of tissue is located under the
skin between it and adjacent muscles,
leaving the skin freely movable.
 It also separates muscles, and binds
together muscle bundles.
 It binds together the several tissues in an
organ, and surrounds many structures.
b. Adipose connective tissue - Adipose (fatty)
tissue is modified connective tissue.

 The nucleus of each cell is

pushed to one side by fat
that is deposited in the
cytoplasm.
 The fat cell resembles a
signet right.
 Some fat will be found
wherever there is
connective.
 There is a layer of fat
under the skin that acts as
insulation.
 Fat forms a layer about
some organs such as the
kidney.
 It may form deposits in
any organ containing
connective tissue.
c. Fibrous connective tissue - tendons, aponeuroses

 Fibrous tissue, white fibrous

tissue is a type of connective
tissue in which the matrix
consists of bundles of collagen
fibers that either lie parallel to
each other or form a crisscross
of fibers within sheet.
 These bundles form strong
cords or sheets of tissue.
 Tendons are composed of the
white fibrous bundles with a
few cells at the margins of the
bundle.
 Ligaments and various
aponeuroses (sheets of
tissue) are also fibrous tissue.
 These cords or sheets are
strong and break or tear with
difficulty.
d. Elastic connective tissue - walls of blood
vessels
 Elastic connective tissue
is largely composed of
elastic fibers that are
contractile and
stretchable.
 There are scattered cell
bodies.
 This type of tissue is
found in structures that
must expand and
contract.
 For example, elastic
tissue is contained in the
walls of large vessels, in
the lings, and in the
membranes lining hallow
organs.
e. Cartilage or gristle connective tissue - Cartilage of
nose, ears, joints

 Cartilage consists of oval

shaped nucleated cells
surrounded by a matrix
that cements the cells
into a firm but flexible
structure.
 The cell bodies of
cartilage are often
paired.
 In cartilage the
intercellular substance or
matrix forms the bulk of
the tissue.
 The matrix may be clear
(hyaline) or may have
white collagen fibers
(fibrocartilage) or elastic
fibers (elastic cartilage).
 Hyaline Cartilage
 Forms articular cartilage at
joints, costal cartilages,
nasal and laryngeal
cartilages, and the ring like
cartilage of the trachea and
bronchi.

Fibrocartilage
 forms articular discs at
some joints such as the
intervertebral discs,
temporomandibular joints,
and the acromioclavicular
and sternoclavicular joints.

Elastic Cartilage
 forms the epiglottis, the
cartilages of the external
ear, and the auditory canals.
f. Bone or osseous connective tissue - the skeleton

 Bone or osseous tissue is

modified connective
tissue.
 It consists of nucleated
cells with many processes
extending out from the
cell bodies like the legs of
spiders.
 The spaces about the
processes and between
cells are impregnated
with calcium phosphate
forming a rigid matrix.
 In compact bone, the
bone cells form concentric
layers around the central
canal – the Haversian
canal.
g. Reticular tissue

 Reticular tissue is
composed of a fine
network (reticulum) of
fibers and is located in
the lymph nodes,
spleen, thymus, and
bone marrow.
 MUSCULAR TISSUE
a) Skeletal muscle, striated,
voluntary, attached to
skeleton
 Muscular tissue is
b) Visceral muscle, non-
striated or smooth, composed of elongated
involuntary, in the walls of cylindrical or spindle-
hollow organs, bronchi, shaped cells cemented
intestine, and bile ducts etc. together to form bundles
c) Cardiac muscle or the or sheets.
myocardium, muscular
layer of he heart,  Muscles cells are also
myocardium called muscle fibers.

 Minute fibrils (little

fibers) or myofibrils
extend from one end of
muscle fibers to the
other in the cytoplasm.
 Minute fibrils (little fibers)
or myofibrils extend from
one end of muscle fibers to
the other in the cytoplasm.
 These fibrils by contraction
can shorten the muscle.
 Bundles of muscles cell are
bound together, side by
side, sand end to end.
 The bundles of fibers are
bound together by
connective tissue.
 The whole muscles,
consisting of many
bundles, is often enclosed
in a connective tissue
sheath or covering.
 There are three kinds of
muscles, skeletal, visceral,
and cardiac.
a. Skeletal muscle, striated, voluntary, attached to skeleton

 Skeletal muscles; Voluntary or striated

muscles is usually attached to bones across a
joint.
 It has sensory and motor nerves supplying it.
 It contract in response to message
transmitted along motor nerves from the
brain.
 It is called voluntary, because it may be
made to contract at will.
 It has cross marking that are visible
microscopically hence the name striated
(stria= a line, band).
 Each fiber or cell is cylindrical in shape and
may be 3.2cm or 1.5 inches in length or much
shorter.
 Each slender cylindrical is cemented by its
cell membrane to other fibers, side by side
and end to end, each cell or fiber has several
nuclei located along the margins-so
multinuclear.
 Contraction of skeletal muscle results in
movement.
b. Visceral muscle, non-striated or smooth,
involuntary, in the walls of hollow organs,
bronchi, intestine, and bile ducts etc.
 Visceral muscle: Involuntary.
 Non-striated or smooth muscle is
found in the walls of many organs
such as stomach, intestine,
gallbladder, blood vessels, etc.,
hence the name visceral, from
viscous- an organ
 Since these organ are controlled by
the autonomic nervous system, and
not by the cerebrum the muscles
termed involuntary.
 The muscle fibers are spindle-
shaped with pointed ends.
 Each has a single nucleus and many
myofibrils that run lengthwise; their
contraction shortens the fibers.
 The longer fibers are said to measures
about 0.5mm or 1//50 inch in length.
 The fibers are joint side to side and
end to end to make up sheets of
muscle.
 Fibers do not have cross markings so
are labelled non-striated or smooth
muscle.
 There are frequently two layers of
visceral muscle in the covering of a
hallow organs.
 The inner circular layer has its fibers
encircling the organ the organ while
the outer longitudinal layer has its
fibers running lengthwise.
 Contraction of circular layer will cause
a decrease in the size of the cavity.
 The visceral muscle layers are
responsible for peristalsis.
 Visceral muscle is capable of
considerable distension to
accommodate the contents of an
organ filled with gas, fluid, etc.
C. Cardiac muscle or the myocardium, muscular layer of
the heart, myocardium

 Cardiac muscle or the

myocardium is a type of
muscle found only in the
wall of the heart. (Cardia =
heart).
 The fibers are cylindrical
similar to those of the
skeletal muscle, but
branched.
 Each fiber has a single
nucleus, and has cross
markings, so is termed
striated.
 The fibers are joined
together side to side and
end to end, the arrangement
of the fibers encircling the
heart is quite complex.
NERVOUS TISSUE

Nerve cell
 A. NEURON
 Nerve cells, active cells of nervous
system with cell bodies, axons,
dendrites
 Neurons or nerve cells consist of a cell
body with a central nucleus and two
sets of processes, an axon, and
dendrites.
 The axon is a single slender process
extending out from the cell body.
 It may be very short or maybe two or
three feet in length.
 It conducts nerve impulses away from
the cell body.
 The dendrites are several processes
that often extend out from the
opposite pole of the cell body to the
axon.
 They carry impulses toward the cell
body.
 They are called dendrites because they
 The Neurons Are Of Two Kinds
a sensory neuron, or motor neuron

 The sensory neurons

1.Sensory convey sensory impulses
Neurons from the skin or other
structures to the spinal
cord and brain.

 Sensation of touch,
pressure, pain, heat, and
cold, as will as of sight,
hearing, smell, and
taste, are transmitted.

 Receptors are minute

structures at the distal
ends of dendrites the
pick-up sensory
impulses.
 2) Motor Neuron
 Motor Neurons
convey impulses from
the brain and spinal
cord out to muscles
or secreting glands
thereby initiating
contraction or
secretion.

 Effectors are
minute’s plates or
branching fibrils at
the distal ends of
axons of motor
neurons that transmit
impulses to muscle
fibers or glands
 B. NEUROGLIA;
The four types of neuroglia: astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and
ependyma.
 Neuroglion,
supporting cells
nervous system

 Neuroglia is the
supporting cells
of the nervous
system and is
placed around
neurons.
ORGAN
 Group of tissue
organized into a unit
and concerned with
some specific
function.

 For examples, the

heart is an organ
designed to pump
blood to all parts of
the body.

 It composed of
muscle, connective
tissue and epithelium.

 Other examples
include the lungs,
kidneys, spleen, liver,
etc.
 Groups of tissue and SYSTEMS
organs arranged to
perform some function.

 For example, the

cardiovascular system
is made up of the heart,
arteries, veins and
lymphatic’s.

 They work together to

transport blood to all
parts of the body, and
return it to the heart.

 Other examples include

the skeletal system,
muscular system,
digestive system.
 SYSTEM

 The skeletal system

 The skin, cutis, or
integumentary
system
 The muscular
system
 The blood and
circulatory system
 The respiratory
system
 The digestive
system
 The urinary system
 The reproductive
system
 The endocrine
system
 The nervous
system
 DIRECTIONAL TERMS:

Superior-

 Refers to the upper

part, or that part
towards the head end,
assuming the body to
be in the anatomical
position, e.g. Superior
lobe of a lung.
Inferior-

 Refers to the
lower part, or
that part away
from the head
end, e.g.

 Inferior lobe of a
lung.
 Cephalic (Cranial)-

 Refers to the
head or head end
of the body or an
organ.
Caudal (Cephalad)-

 Refers of the tail

or tail end of the
body, or of an
organ.
 Anterior-

 Towards the front

or in the front part
of the body, an
organ or other
structure, e.g. The
lower anterior
teeth.
Posterior-

 Towards the back, or

in the back part of
the body, an organ or
a part of it, e.g. lower
posterior teeth.
 Ventral Decubitus

Ventral-
 In human
anatomy refers to
the front or
anterior part –
the same as
anterior.
Dorsal decubitus

Dorsal-
 In human
anatomy refers to
the back or the
poaterior part,
e.g. Dorsal surface
of the forearm.
 Medial-

 Refer to part of
any structure or
organ that lies
nearest to the
median line of
body; medial
malleolus of the
tibia.
Lateral-

 Refer to part of an
organ or structures
that lies farthest
away from median
line of body e.g.
lateral malleolus of
fibula.
 Proximal-

 Refers to part
closest to its
source or origin,
its attached end,
e.g. proximal end
of humerus.
Distal-

 Refers to part
farthest away from
the source or origin
or point of
attachment, e.g. the
distal end of the
humerus.
 Anatomical position

 Refers to the patient

standing erect with the
face and eyes directed
forward, arms extended
by the sides with palms
of the hands facing
forward, heels together,
and toes pointing
anteriorly.

Median line of the body

 Median line of the body is

a line drawn
perpendicularly through
the center of the
forehead, nose, chin,
chest, abdomen and
pelvis, and between the
legs, dividing the body
Modified Anatomical Position
(Prone And Supine)
 Three Fundamental Planes Of The Body:
The Mid-sagittal, Or Median
 Mid-sagittal, or Sagittal Plane
median sagittal,
plane passes
vertically through
the midline of the
body from front to
back, dividing it
into equal right
and left portions.

 Any plane passing

through the body
parallel with the
mid-sagittal plane
is term a Sagittal
Plane.
  Mid-coronal, or mid-
The Mid-coronal, or
frontal, plane passes
Mid-frontal Plane vertically through
the mid-axillary
region of the body
and through the
coronal suture of the
cranium at right
angles to the mid-
sagittal plane,
dividing the body
into anterior
(ventral) and
posterior (dorsal)
portions.

 Any plane passing

vertically through
the body from side
to side is called a
Coronal Plane
 The Transverse, or Axial
 Transverse, or axial,
plane passes
Plane
crosswise through
the body at right
angles to its
longitudinal axis
and the mid-sagittal
and coronal planes,
dividing it in to
superior and
inferior portions.

 Any plane passing

through the body at
right angles to its
longitudinal axis is
called a Transverse,
or Axial, Plane.
THE PLANES OF THE BODY
 SURFACE LANDMARK

 Most anatomic  If surface landmarks are not

structures cannot be used for radiographic
visualized directly; positioning or if they are used
therefore the incorrectly, the chance of having
radiographer must use to repeat the radiograph greatly
various
increases.
protuberances,
tuberosities, and other  These landmarks are accepted
external indicators to average for the majority of
accurately position the patients and should be used as
patient. guidelines.
 Varieties in anatomic build or
 These surface
pathologic conditions may
landmarks enable the
radiographer to warrant positioning
consistently obtain compensation on an individual
radiographs of optimal basis.
quality for a wide  The ability to compensate is
variety of body types.
gained through experience.
External Landmarks Related To Body Structures At
The Same Level

Body Structures External Landmarks

Cervical
-Mastoid Tip
 C1
-Gonion (Angle Of Mandible)
 C2, C3

 C3, C4 -Hyoid Bone

 C5 -Thyroid Cartilage

 C7, T1 -Vertebral Prominence

Surface Landmarks – Head And Neck
Thoracic Area

 T1 - Approximately 2 inches above

the level of jugular notch

 T2, T3 - Level of jugular notch

 T4, T5 - Level of sterna angle

- Level of inferior angles of

 T7
scapulae

 T9, T10 - Level of xiphoid process

Lumbar Area

 L2, L3 -Inferior costal margin

 L4, L5
-Level of most superior
aspect of iliac crest
Sacrum and Pelvic
Area

 S1, S2
-Level of anterior superior
iliac supine (ASIS)

 Coccyx -Level of pubic symphysis

and greater trochanters
Surface Landmarks - Torso
 FACTORS DETERMINING POSITION OF THE ABDOMINAL ORGANS
While the abdominal part of the digestive system, and many other structures lie in the same general area in all human subjects, their
position is also influenced and altered by the following factors.

1. Habitus or Body Build; 4. Phase of Respiration;

 Stocky individuals have their  With inspiration,
organs at a higher level than especially a deep
the slim, narrow shouldered inspiration the
person. diaphragm descends and
pushes the abdominal
2. Weight; organ down.
 The organs in a thin person  They ascend with
will lie at a lower level than in expiration.
the obese subject.
5. State of Fullness;
3. Position of Subject;
 An organ such as the
 In the upright position the
stomach when full lies
organs descend, and lie at a
at a lower level than
lower level than when the
when empty.
subject is lying down.
 Division Of The Abdomen
 The abdomen is the portion of the Division Into Four
trunk bordered superiorly by the Quadrants
diaphragm and inferiorly by the
pelvic inlet.
 To describe the location of organs or
an area, the abdomen may be divided
either into four quadrants or nine
region.
 The abdomen is divided into four
quadrants by a transverse and a
midsagittal plane that intersects at
the umbilicus.
 The quadrants are named the right
upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower
quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant
(LUQ) and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
 Dividing the abdomen into four
quadrants is useful in describing the
location of various abdominal
organs.
 For example, the spleen can be
described as being located within the
The right upper quadrant
1. Pyloric part of the stomach
2. Duodenum, superior, descending
+ horizontal part
3. parts of the small intestine
4. upper descending colon
5. Right half of the transverse colon
6. Liver , greater part
7. Gall bladder, usually
8. Bile duct
9. Head of the pancreas
10.End of pancreatic duct
11.Right suprarenal gland
12.Right kidney
13.Renal pelvis + upper ureter, right
14.Blood and lymph nodes
The right lower quadrant
1. Lower ascending colon
2. Cecum + appendix, usually
3. Right ureter midpart
4. Terminal ileum, usually
5. Blood and lymph vessels
The left upper quadrant
1. stomach, fundus and body
2. Duodenum, ascending part
3. Parts of the small intestine
4. Left half of transverse colon
5. Upper part of descending colon
6. Body and tail of pancreas
7. Spleen
8. Left suprarenal gland
9. Liver, a small part
10.Left kidney
11.Renal pelvis + upper ureter, left
12.Blood vessels, lymph vessels
13.Cisterna chyli + lower thoracic
duct
The left lower quadrant
1. Lower part of descending colon
2. Part of sigmoid colon,sometimes
3. Small intestine, part of ileum
4. Left ureter, midpart
5. Blood and lymph vessels
 Division Into Nine Regions
 These four lines divide the
 A line is drawn
transversely across the
abdomen at the level of
the transpyloric plane at
the tips of the 9th costal
cartilages.
 A second line is drawn
transversely across the
abdomen at the level of
the iliac crests.
 Vertical lines are drawn on
each side of the abdomen
from point midway
between the anterior
spines of the iliac bones
and the symphysis pubis,
up to the thorax.
abdomen into nine regions and
these planes were described
by Addison’s and may
occasionally be called
Addison’s planes.
1. The right hypochondriac
region
2. The epigastric region
3. The left hypochondriac
region
4. The right lumbar region
5. The umbilical region
6. The right lumbar region
7. The right iliac region
8. The hypogastric region
9. The left lumbar region
The Nine Regions Of The Abdomen
 THE FOUR TYPE OF BODY HABITUS:
PREVALENCE, CHARACTERISTIC AND ORGAN
PLACEMENT
 Characteristics Stenic-50%
Build: moderately heavy
Abdomen: moderately long
Thorax: moderately short,
broad
and deep
Pelvic: relatively small

 Organs
Heart: moderately
transverse
Lungs: moderately length
Diaphragm: moderately
high
Stomach: high, upper left
Colon: spread evenly; slight
dip in transverse colon
Gall bladder: centered on
right side, upper
Characteristics
Build: frail Asthenic,10%
Abdomen: short
Thorax: long, shallow
Pelvis: wide

 Organs
Heart: nearly vertical and at
the midline
Lungs: long, apices above
the clavicles,
may be broader above the
base
Diaphragm: low
Stomach: low and medial, in
the pelvis when standing
Colon: low, folds on itself
Gallbladder: low and near
the midline
 Hyposthenic,35%

 The organs and

characteristics of this
habitus are
intermediate between
the sthenic and
asthenic body habitus
types.

 This habitus is the

most difficult to
classify
 Characteristics Hypersthenic, 5%
Build: massive
Abdomen: long
Thorax: short, broad, deep
Pelvic: narrow

 Organs
Heart: axis nearly
transverse
Lungs: short, apices at or
near clavicle
Diaphragm: high
Stomach: high, transverse,
and in the midline
Colon: around periphery of
abdomen
Gallbladder: high, outside,
lies more parallel