What is research= A systematic design, collection, analysis and reporting of findings

and analysis to a specific situation.

Concerned with seeking solutions to problems or answers to meaningful questions
CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETING RESEARCH= SALES ANALYSIS
• measurement of market potential
• determination of market characteristics
• market share estimation
• studies of business trends
SALES METHODS AND POLICIES
• to evaluate the effectiveness of distribution system
• establishing sales territories
• establishment of sales quotas
• design of territory boundary
• compensation to sales force
• physical distribution
• to assess the effectiveness of different promotional activities such as premiums, coupons
CLASSIFICATION OF MARKETING RESEARCH
3. Advertising Research= Media Research-National Readership Survey
• Copy Research by Advertising Agencies
• Studies of Advertisement Effectiveness
4. Product Management= to manage existing and new products
• feedback about competitive product offerings
• pricing, packaging, design
5. Corporate Research- change in image among customers
• Social Value Research- anti-dowry, smoking, drinking, family related problems
• Political studies- election results
• Customer service studies- banks, hotels
Syndicated Research= Television Rating Points, Thompson Indices- market potential assessment of a city
with population 1 lakh and more, IMRB- lifestyle research, ORG Retail Audit- movement of
consumer goods, Through retail outlets, MARG Prescription Audit- diseases and use of branded
drugs
RESEARCH PROCESS= Step 1: Problem definition
- purpose of study
- discussion with decision makers
- interviews with industry experts
- analysis of secondary data
- qualitative research (focus group)
Step 2: Development of an approach to the problem
- formulating objectives or theoretical framework
- analytical models
-research questions, hypotheses
 ROLE OF MARKETING RESEARCH
CUSTOMER GROUPS
1.Consumers
2.Employees
3.Shareholders
4. Suppliers

UNCONTROLLABLE
CONTROLLABLE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL
MARKETING FACTORS
VARIABLES 1. Economy
1. Product 2. Technology
2. Price 3. Competition
3. Promotion Assessing Marketing 4. Laws & Regulation
4. Distribution Information Providing Decision 5. Social & cultural
Information factors
6. Political factors
needs marketing

MARKETING MANAGERS
1. Market Segmentation
2. Target market selection.
3. Marketing program
4. Performance & control
Customer Service on London Buses
Step 3: Research Design Formulation
- blue print for conducting research
- conducting exploratory research
- secondary data analysis
- methods of collecting data survey
- measurement and scaling procedures
- questionnaire design
- sampling process and sample size
- plan of data analysis
Step 4: Fieldwork or data collection
Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis
Step 6: Report preparation and presentation
Defining the Research Problem and Developing an Approach= Importance of Defining a Problem-
Chain Restaurant Study One day I received a phone call from a research analyst who introduced himself as one of our
alumni.
He was working for a restaurant chain in town and wanted help analyzing the data he had collected while conducting a
marketing research study.

When we met, he presented me with a copy of the questionnaire and asked how he should analyze the data. My
first question to him was,
When he looked
Chain Restaurant Study
perplexed, I explained that data analysis is not
an independent exercise.

Rather, the goal of data analysis is to PROVIDE INFORMATION

RELATED TO THE PROBLEM COMPONENTS.

I was surprised to learn that he did not have a clear

understanding of the marketing research problem and that a
written definition did not exist. So before going any further, I had
to define the marketing research problem.

Once that was done, I found that much of the data collected was
not relevant to the problem. In this sense, the whole study was
a waste of resources. A new study had to be
designed and implemented to address the problem defined.
Problem Definition Process Tasks Involved

Discussion with Interviews Secondary Qualitative

Decision Maker(s) with Experts Data Analysis Research

Environmental Context of the Problem

Step I: Problem Definition

Management Decision Problem

Marketing Research Problem

Step II: Approach to the Problem

Analytical Specification of
Objective/ Model: Verbal, Research Information
Theoretical Questions Hypotheses
Foundations Graphical, Needed
Mathematical

Step III: Research Design

Tasks Involved in Problem Definition
 Discussions with Decision Makers
 Interviews with Industry Experts
 Secondary Data Analysis
 Qualitative Research
 The Problem
Audit
The problem audit is a comprehensive examination of a
marketing problem with the purpose of understanding its
origin and nature.
1. The events that led to the decision that action is needed, or
the history of the problem.
In 2013-14, McDonald was losing market share to competitors,
burger king, wendy, subway as they launched new products and did
aggressive promotion campaigns.
2.The alternative courses of action available to the DM.
Qualitative research may be needed. Alternative for McDonald
introducing new menu, reduce price, more restaurants, spend on
promotion.
3.The criteria that will be used to evaluate the alternative
courses of action.
New product offering will be evaluated on the basis of
profitability, market share.
 4.The potential actions that are likely to be
suggested based on the research findings.

Action will depend on results of research

findings.

5.The information that is needed to answer the DM's

questions.

Information is needed on competitor’s marketing mix to

determine strengths and weaknesses.

6.The manner in which the DM will use each item of

information in making the decision.

DM will devise strategy based on research findings.

7.The corporate culture as it relates to decision

making.
Factors to be Considered in Environmental
Context of the Problem
PAST INFORMATION AND FORECASTS

RESOURCES AND CONSTRAINTS

OBJECTIVES

BUYER BEHAVIOR

LEGAL ENVIROMENT

ECONOMIC ENVIROMENT

MARKETING AND TECHNOLOGICAL

SKILLS
Management Decision Problem Vs. Marketing
Research Problem

Marketing Research Problem

•Management To determine consumer preferences
Decision Problem and purchase intentions for the
proposed new product.
Should a new product be
introduced? To determine the effectiveness
of the current advertising
campaign.

To determine the price

•Should the elasticity
advertising of demand and the impact on
sales
campaign be and profits of various levels
 Defining the Research Problem

Marketing Research Problem

Broad Statement

Specific Components
 Department Store Project
Problem Definition

In department store project, marketing research problem is to determine

relative strengths and weaknesses of Sears, vis-à-vis other major
competitors, with respect to factors that influence store
patronage. Specifically, researchshould provide information on the following
questions.

1. What criteria do households use when selecting department stores?

2. How do households evaluate Sears and competing stores in terms of the
choice criteria identified in question 1?
3. Which stores are patronized when shopping for specific product
categories?
4. What is market share of Sears and its competitors for specific product
categories?
5. What is the demographic and psychological profile of customers of
Sears? Does
it differ from profile of customers of competing stores?
 Components of the Approach

•Objective/Theoretical Foundations
•Analytical Model
•Research Questions
•Hypotheses
•Specification of the Information Needed
 Models
An analytical model is a set of
variables and their interrelationships
designed to represent, in whole or in
part, some real system or process.

In verbal models, the variables and

their relationships are stated in prose
form. Such models may be mere
restatements of the main tenets of a
theory.
 Graphical Models
Graphical models are visual. They are used to
isolate variables and to suggest directions of
relationships but are not designed to provide
numerical results.
Awareness

Understanding: Evaluation

Preference

Patronage
 Mathematical Models
 Mathematical models explicitly specify relationships
among variables, usually in equation form.
n

y  a0
i a i xi
1
Where
y = degree of
preference
= model parameters to be estimated
astatistically
0 , ai
 Development of Research
Questions and Hypotheses

Components of the
Marketing Research Problem
Objective/
Theoretical
Framework
Research Questions
Analytical
Model
Hypotheses
 Research Questions and Hypotheses

• Research questions (RQs) are refined

statements of the specific components
of the problem.

• A hypothesis (H) is an unproven

statement or proposition about a factor
or phenomenon that is of interest to the
researcher. Often, a hypothesis is a
possible answer to the research
question.
 Department Store
Project

• RQ: Do the customers of Sears exhibit

store loyalty?

• H1: Customers who are store loyal are less

knowledgeable about the shopping
environment.
• H2: Store-loyal customers are more risk-averse
than are non-loyal customers.
 Department Store Project
Specification of Information Needed
Component 1
Researcher identified following factors as part of choice criteria: quality of
merchandise, variety and assortment of merchandise, returns and
adjustment policy, service of store personnel, prices, convenience of location,
layout of store, credit and billing policies. Respondents
should be asked to rate importance of each factor as it influences their store
selection.
Component 2
Researcher identified 9 department stores as competitors to Sears based on
discussions with management. Respondents should be asked to evaluate
Sears and its 9 competitors on 8 choice criteria factors.
Component 3
16 different product categories were selected, including women's dresses,
women's sportswear, lingerie and body fashion, junior merchandise, men's
apparel, cosmetics, jewellery, shoes, sheets and towels, furniture and bedding,
and draperies. Respondents should be asked whether they shop at each of
ten stores for each of the 16 product categories.
 Department Store Project
Component 4
No additional information needs to be obtained from the
respondents.
Component 5
Information should be obtained on standard demographic
characteristics and psychographic characteristics of store loyalty,
credit use, appearance consciousness and combining shopping
with eating.
Component 6
No additional information needs to be obtained from the
respondents.
At United, Food is Uniting the Airline with Travelers

United Airlines, as other major airlines, had to deal with

passenger loyalty (management decision problem: how to
attract more and more loyal passengers). The broad
marketing research problem was to identify the factors that
influence loyalty of airline travelers.
The basic answer is to improve service. Exploratory
research, theoretical framework, and empirical evidence
revealed that the consumers’ choice of an airline is
influenced by: safety, price of the ticket, frequent-flyer
program, convenience of scheduling, and brand name.
At United, Food is Uniting the Airline with Travelers

A graphical model stipulated that consumers evaluate

competing airlines based on factors of the choice criteria to
select a preferred airline. The problem was that major
airlines were quite similar on these factors. Indeed,
"airlines offer the same schedules, the same service, and
the same fares.” Consequently, United Airlines had to
find a way to differentiate itself. Food turned out to
be the solution.

Secondary data, like the J. D Power & Associates' survey

on "current and future trends in airline food industry,"
indicated that "food service is a major contributor to
customers’ loyalty." This survey also emphasized the
importance of food brands.
At United, Food is Uniting the Airline with Travelers

The airline's Marketrak survey told United Airlines that

"customers wanted more varied and up-to-date food.”
The following research questions and hypotheses may
be posed.
RQ1 How important is food for airline customers?
H1: Food is an important factor for airline
travelers. H2: Travelers value branded food.

H3: Travelers prefer larger food portions, but with

consistent quality.
H4: Travelers prefer exotic food.
At United, Food is Uniting the Airline with Travelers

Characteristics which influence the research design included

identification of competing airlines (Delta, American, etc.),
factors of the choice criteria (already identified), measurement
of airline travel, and loyalty.

This kind of research helped United Airlines to define

their marketing research problem, and develop the
approach.
Focus groups and surveys were conducted to check customers'
perceptions of food in United Airlines' aircraft. The results
provided support for all the hypotheses (H1 to H4).
United Airlines then made a few changes: new "culinary menus,"
larger portions of food, new coffee, and branded products (e.g.,
Godiva chocolates).This resulted in better service, increasing
 RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is the specification of

methods and procedures for acquiring the
information needed. It is the overall
operational pattern or framework of the
project that stipulates what information is to
be collected from which sources by what
procedures.
Types of Research Designs
Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Design Sectional Design
 Uses of Exploratory Research
• Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
• Identify alternative courses of action
• Develop hypotheses
• Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
• Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
• Establish priorities for further research

Methods of Exploratory Research

• Survey of experts
• Pilot surveys
• Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way
• Qualitative research
 Exploratory & Conclusive Research
Differences
Exploratory
Objective: To provide insights and
understanding.
Character- Information needed is
istics: defined only loosely.
Research process is flexible
and unstructured. Sample
is small and non-
representative. Analysis of
primary data is qualitative.
Findings
/ Tentative.
Results:
Outcome: Generally followed by
further exploratory or
conclusive research.
Conclusive
To test specific hypotheses
and examine relationships.
Information needed is clearly
defined. Research process is
formal and structured. Sample
is large and representative.
Data analysis is quantitative.
Conclusive.
Findings used as input into
decision making.
 Comparison of Research Designs
Objective: Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Discovery of Describe market Determine cause
ideas and characteristics or and effect
insights functions relationships

Marked by the prior Manipulation of

Characteristics: Flexible,
formulation of one or more
versatile
specific hypotheses independent
Often the front variables
end of total Preplanned and
research design structured design Control of other
mediating
variables

Secondary data Experiments

Expert surveys
Methods: Surveys
Pilot surveys
Panels
Secondary data
Observation and
Qualitative
other data
 Uses of Descriptive Research
• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such
as consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas.
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified
population exhibiting a certain behavior.
• To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.
• To determine the to which marketing variables are
degree associated.
• To make specific predictions

Methods of Descriptive Research

• Secondary data analyzed in a quantitative as opposed
to a qualitative manner
• Surveys
• Panels
• Observational and other data
■
Cross-sectional Designs
Involve the collection of information from any given
sample of population elements only once.
■
In single cross- sectional designs, there is only
one sample of respondents and information is obtained
from this sample only once.
■
In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two
or more samples of respondents, and information from
each sample is obtained only once. Often,
information from different samples is obtained at different
times.
■
Cohort analysis consists of a series of surveys
conducted at appropriate time intervals, where the cohort
serves as the basic unit of analysis. A cohort
is a group of respondents who experience the same event
within the same time interval.
 Longitudinal Designs
 A fixed sample (or samples) of population
elements is measured repeatedly on the same
variables
 A longitudinal design differs from a cross-
sectional design in that the sample or
samples remain the same over time
 Uses of Casual Research
■ To understand which variables are the cause
(independent variables) and which variables
are the effect (dependent variables) of a
phenomenon
■ To determine the nature of the relationship
between the causal variables and the effect to
be predicted
■ METHOD: Experiments
 Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Research
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data and

understanding of the generalize the results from the
underlying reasons and sample to the population of
motivations interest

Sample Small number of non- Large number of

representative cases representative cases
Unstructured Structured
Data Collection

Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical

Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final course of

understanding action
 Classification of Research Data
Research Data

Secondary Data Primary Data

Qualitative Data Quantitative Data

Descriptive Causal

Survey Observational Experimental

Data and Other Data Data
 Classification of Qualitative Research
Procedures
Qualitative Research
Procedures

Direct (Non Indirect

disguised) (Disguised)

Projective
Depth Interviews Techniques
Focus Groups

Association Co mpletion Construction Expressive

Techniques Tec hniques Techniques Techniques
(Word (Sentence (Cartoon (Role plays
Completion Completion, TAT
Procedure for Planning and Conducting Focus Groups

Determine the Objectives and Define the Problem

Specify the Objectives of Qualitative Research

State the Objectives/Questions to be Answered by Focus Groups

Write a Screening Questionnaire

Develop a Moderator’s Outline

Conduct the Focus Group Interviews

Review Tapes and Analyze the Data

Summarize the Findings and Plan Follow-Up Research or

Action
 Advantages of Online Focus Groups
■ Geographical constraints are removed and time
constraints are lessened.

■
Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a
later date.

■
Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus
groups: doctors, lawyers, etc.

■
Moderators can carry on side conversations with
individual respondents.

■
There is no travel, video taping, or facilities to
arrange; so the cost is much lower.
 Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering
In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from
product characteristics to user characteristics. This
technique allows the researcher to tap into the
consumer's network of meanings.

Wide body aircrafts (product

characteristic)

I can get more work done

I accomplish more

I feel good about myself (user characteristic)

Advertising theme: You will feel good about yourself when flying our
airline. “You're The Boss.”
Depth Interview Techniques: Hidden Issue
Questioning
In hidden issue questioning, the focus is not on
socially shared values but rather on personal “sore
spots;” not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt
personal concerns.

fantasies, work lives, and social lives

historic, elite, “masculine-camaraderie,” competitive

activities

Advertising theme: communicate aggressiveness,

high status, and competitive heritage of the airline.
Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic
Analysis
Symbolic analysis attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of
objects by comparing them with their opposites. The logical
opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the
product, attributes of an imaginary “non-product,” and opposite types
of products.

“What would it be like if you could no longer use airplanes?”

“Without planes, I would have to rely on letters and long

distance calls.”

Airlines sell to the managers face-to-face communication.

Advertising theme: The airline will do the same thing for a

manager as Federal Express does for a package.
Definition of Projective Techniques
■ An unstructured, indirect form of questioning
that encourages respondents to project their
underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes or
feelings regarding the issues of concern.
■
In projective techniques, respondents are
asked to interpret the behavior of others.
■ In interpreting the behavior of others,
respondents indirectly project their own
motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings into the
situation.
 Word Association
In word association, respondents are presented with a list of
words, one at a time and asked to respond to each with the first word
that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words,
are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral,
or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are
analyzed by calculating:

(1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response;

(2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and
(3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test
word within a reasonable period of time.
 Word Association
EXAMPLE
STIMULUS MRS. M MRS. C
washday everyday ironing
and sweet clean
fresh
air soiled
pure
scrub don't; husband does clean
filth this neighborhood dirt soap
bubbles bath and water
family squabbles children
towels d wash
irty
 Completion Techniques
In Sentence completion, respondents are given incomplete
sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are
asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind.

A person who shops at Sears is

A person who receives a gift certificate good for Sak's Fifth

Avenue would be

J. C. Penney is most liked by

When I think of shopping in a department store, I

A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which

the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus
Completion Techniques
In story completion, respondents are given part of a story –
enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the
ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.

Construction Techniques
With a picture response, the respondents are asked to
describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The
respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of
that individual's personality.

In cartoon tests, cartoon characters are shown in a specific

situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to
indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the
comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to
administer and analyze than picture response techniques.
A Cartoon
Test
Sears

Let’s see if we can

pick up some house
wares at Sears
 Expressive Techniques
In expressive techniques, respondents are presented
with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the
feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation.

Role playing Respondents are asked to play the role

or assume the behavior of someone else.

Third- person technique The respondent is presented

with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked
to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than
directly expressing personal beliefs and
attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor,
colleague, or a “typical” person.
 Literature Review
 Data refers to a body of information.
 Information can be extracted from many sources such as words, numbers,
images, hyperlinks, audio, and video.
 Information that the literature reviewer collects to inform a literature
review represents data.
 Literature review process can be viewed as a data collection tool. Collecting
a body of information pertinent to a topic of interest.
 Literature review involves activities such as identifying, recording,
understanding, meaning-making and transmitting information.
 Literature review process is actualized through data collection.
 Literature review represents a formal data collection process wherein
information is gathered in a comprehensive way.
 The aim of SLR is to systematically analyze existing literature in order to
answer a research question.
Process of Systematic Literature Review
 LITERATURE REVIEW
Author & Year Study Focus/Objectives/Findings

Collings, D. G., & There definition is premised on the idea that the starting point for any talent management system should be the
Mellahi, K. systematic identification of the key positions which differentially contribute to an organization’s sustainable competitive
advantage. This is consistent with an increasing recognition that there should be a greater degree of differentiation of roles within
(2009)
organizations, with a greater focus on strategic over non-strategic jobs (Becker& Huselid, 2006), or between those organizational roles
which promise only marginal impact vis- à-vis those which can provide above-average impact (Boudreau & Ramstad, 2007). This is in
contrast to the extant situation in many organizations where over-investment in non-strategic roles is common (Boudreau & Ramstad,
2007; Huselid, Beatty & Becker, 2005). The second element of their definition emphasizes the development
of a talent pool of high potential and high performing incumbents to fill the roles that differentially contribute to an
organization’s sustainable competitive advantage.

Ashton, C., & Interpretation of talent is inclusive; it strikes a strategic balance between performance and potential. Performance –
Morton, L. (2005) historically, the primary focus of measurement and management – concerns both the past and the present, whereas potential
represents the future. They assume that potential exists, it can be identified and it can be developed.
Talent management is the integration of different initiatives, or constructs, into a coherent framework of activity. There are certain
crucial components and a useful model for defining TM is to think of it in these key words:
• Ethos • Focus • Positioning • Structure • System

Nancy R. Effective talent management policies and practices that demonstrate commitment to human capital result in more
Lockwood, engaged employees and lower turnover. Consequently, employee engagement has a substantial impact on employee productivity and
(2006) talent retention. Employee engagement, in fact, can make or break the bottom line.
Effective talent management calls for strong participatory leadership, organizational buy-in, employee engagement
and workplace scorecards with talent management metrics. It is the work experience and ultimately, the Organizational culture
that determine Employee Engagement and retention of talent. Effective Talent Management requires strong participatory
Leadership, Organizational buy-in and Employee Engagement
PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review) Elements
PRISMA 27 Item Checklist
PRISMA Checklist
4 Phase flow diagram showing flow of information through different phases of a
systematic review
Study selection process
 Measurement and Scales
Measurement- means assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules.
• One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the
characteristics being measured.
• The rules for assigning numbers should be
standardized and applied uniformly.
• Rules must not change over objects or time.

Scaling- involves creating a continuum upon which measured

objects are located.
• Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 5. Each respondent is
assigned a number from 1 to 5, with 1 = Extremely Unfavourable and
5 = Extremely Favourable.
Types of Measurement Scales

Store Nominal Scale Ordinal Scale Interval Scale Ratio Scale $

(Preference (Preference
Rating 1-7) spent in
Ranking) last1month
Kmart 1 3 2 30

JC Penny 2 2 1 20

Target 3 1 3 50

Sears 4 5 7 100

Walmart 5 4 5 10
Nominal Scale
 The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and
classifying objects.
 When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence
between the numbers and the objects.
 The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic
possessed by the objects.
 Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency
counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.
Ordinal Scale
 A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate
the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
 Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some
other object, but not how much more or less.
 Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered
relationships between the objects.
 In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data,
ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile,
quartile, median.
Interval Scale

 Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the

characteristic being measured.
 It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
 The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the
units of measurement are arbitrary.
 It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values.

 Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can
be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition arithmetic mean,
standard deviation and other statistics commonly used in marketing
research.

Ratio Scale
 Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval
scales.
 It has an absolute zero point.

 It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.

 All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

 Primary Scales of
Scale Basic
Measurement Common Marketing Permissible Statistics
Characteristics Examples Examples Descriptive Inferential
Nominal Numbers identify Social Security Brand nos., store Percentages, Chi-square,
& classify objects nos., numbering types mode binomial test
of football players
Ordinal Nos. indicate the Quality rankings, Preference Percentile, Rank-order
relative positions rankings of teams rankings, market median correlation,
of objects but not in a tournament position, social Friedman
the magnitude of class ANOVA
differences
between them
Interval Differences Temperature Attitudes, Range, mean, Product-
between objects (Fahrenheit) opinions, index standard moment
Ratio Zero point is fixed, Length, weight Age, sales, Geometric Coefficient of
ratios of scale income, costs mean, harmonic variation
values can be mean
compared
 SCALING TECHNIQUES

Comparative Scale Non Comparative Scale

Continuous Itemized
Paired Constant Rating Rating
Rank Order Q Sort
Comparison Sum Scale Scale

Semantic
Likert Differential Stapel
Comparative scales involve the direct
comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative
scale data must be interpreted in relative terms
and have only ordinal or rank order
properties.

In noncomparative scales , each object is

scaled independently of the others in the
stimulus set. The resulting data are generally
assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.
 Continuous Rating
Scale
How would you rate Walmart as a departmental store ?

Version 1
Probably the best _ _ _ _I _ _ _ _ _ _ Probably the worst

Version 2
Probably the best _ _ _ _I _ _ _ _ _ _ Probably the worst
01020 100

Version 3
Probably the best _ _ _ _I _ _ _ _ _ _ Probably the worst
 Likert Scale
Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate degree of
agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements.

Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly

disagree agree agree
nor
disagree
1. Sears sells high quality 1 2X 3 4 5
merchandise.
2. Sears has poor in-store 1 2X 3 4 5
service.
3. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3X 4 5

 The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or

a total (summated) score can be calculated.

 When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative

statements by the respondents should be scored by reversing the
scale.
 Semantic Differential Scale
Semantic differential is a five or seven point rating scale
with end points associated with bipolar labels that have
semantic meaning.
SEARS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-
fashioned

 The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the

left side of the scale and sometimes at the right.
Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories
numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero).
This scale is usually presented vertically.
SEARS

+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 -5
The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in
the same way as semantic differential data.
 Primary vs. Secondary Data
Primary data is originated by a researcher for
the specific purpose of addressing the problem at
hand.
Secondary data is data which has already
been collected for purposes other than the
problem at hand. This data can be located quickly
and inexpensively.
 Classification of Secondary Data

Secondary Data

Internal External

Ready to Requires Published Computerized Syndicated

Use Further Materials Databases Services
Processing
 Classification of Published Secondary Sources

Published Secondary
Data

General Business Government

Sources Sources

Guides Directories Indexes Statistical Census Other

Data Data Government
Publications
 Classification of Computerized Databases
Computerized
Databases

Online Internet Off-Line

Bibliographic Numeric Full-Text Directory Special-

Databases Databases Databases Databases Purpose
Databases
 Syndicated Services
■ Companies that collect and sell common
pools of data of known commercial value
designed to serve a number of clients.
■ Syndicated sources can be classified based on
the unit of measurement (households/consumers
or institutions).
■ Household/consumer data may be obtained
from surveys, diary panels, or electronic
scanner services.
■ Institutional data may be obtained from
retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms.
 Questionnaire 10-7

Development
• A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for
obtaining information from respondents.
• It must translate the information needed into a set of specific
questions that the respondents will answer.
• A questionnaire must motivate and encourage respondents to
become involved in the interview.
• A questionnaire should minimize response error.
• A pilot study is conducted.
• Variables for questionnaire can be collected from literature
review.
• Already available questionnaires can be considered with
modifications e.g. servqual scale
Questionnaire Design Process
Specify the Information Needed

Specify the Type of Interviewing Method

Determine the Content of Individual Questions

Design the Question to Overcome the Respondent’s Inability and

Unwillingness to Answer

Decide the Question Structure

Determine the Question Wording

Arrange the Questions in Proper Order

Identify the Form and Layout

Reproduce the Questionnaire

Eliminate Bugs by Pre-testing

 Piloting and Pre-testing Questions
• It is desirable to conduct a pilot study before administering self-
completion questionnaire or structured interview
• Piloting has a role in ensuring that the research instrument as a whole
functions well
• Pilot studies may be particularly crucial in relation to research based on the
self-completion questionnaire, since there will not be an interviewer
present to clear up any confusion
• The pilot should not be carried out on people who might be members of the
sample to be employed in the full study
• It is best to find a small set of respondents who are comparable to
members of the population from which the sample for the full study will
be drawn
• Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample
of respondents to identify and eliminate potential problems.
 Pilot Studies in Research
 use open ended questions to generate fixed- choice
answers in studies employing mainly closed questions
 provide interviewers with some experience of, and
greater confidence in, using an interview schedule
 allow questions where (virtually) everyone replies in
the same way to be identified
 may identify questions that make respondents feel
uncomfortable or cause them to lose interest at certain
junctures
 may identify questions that seem not to be understood or
questions that are often not answered
 may determine the adequacy of instructions to
interviewers or to respondents completing self-
completion questionnaires
 may identify how well the questions flow and whether it is
necessary to move some of them around
Types of Questions
a) Open ended questions
b) Closed ended questions
c) Dichotomous questions
d) Multiple choice questions
Phrasing of the questions
The way in which a question is drafted is very important as a
slight suggestive wording would elicit a very different answer
from the respondents.
 Don’t you think that this is a substandard product? Wrong
 Do you think that this is a substandard product? Right
Double-barreled question, because two or more questions are
combined into one. To obtain the required information, two distinct
questions should be asked:
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink?”
(Wrong)
 “Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and (Correct)
 “Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?”(Correct)
Data Preparation Process
Prepare Preliminary Plan of Data Analysis

Check Questionnaire

Edit

Code

Transcribe

Clean Data

Statistically Adjust the Data

Select Data Analysis Strategy

 Questionnaire Checking
A questionnaire returned from the field may be
unacceptable for several reasons.
■ Parts of the questionnaire may be incomplete.

■
The pattern of responses may indicate that the
respondent did not understand or follow the
instructions.
■ The responses show little variance.

■ One or more pages are missing.

■ The questionnaire is received after the

preestablished cutoff date.
■ The questionnaire is answered by someone who does
not qualify for participation.
Editing
Treatment of Unsatisfactory
Results
■ Returning to the Field – The questionnaires
with unsatisfactory responses may be returned to the
field, where the interviewers recontact the
respondents.
■ Assigning Missing Values – If returning the
questionnaires to the field is not feasible, the editor
may assign missing values to unsatisfactory responses.
Discarding Unsatisfactory Respondents
■

– In this approach, the respondents with

unsatisfactory responses are simply discarded.
 Coding
Coding means assigning a code, usually a number, to each possible
response to each question. The code includes an indication of the
column position (field) and data record it will occupy.
Coding Questions
 Fixed field codes, which mean that the number of records for each
respondent is the same and the same data appear in the same
column(s) for all respondents, are highly desirable.
 If possible, standard codes should be used for missing data.
Coding of structured questions is relatively simple, since the
response options are predetermined.
 In questions that permit a large number of responses, each possible
response option should be assigned a separate column.
 Codebook
A codebook contains coding instructions and the
necessary information about variables in the data set. A
codebook generally contains the following information:
column number
■
record number
■
variable number
■
variable name question
■
number instructions for
■
coding
■
 Data Cleaning
Consistency checks- identify data that are out of range,
logically inconsistent, or have extreme values.
• Computer packages like SPSS, SAS, EXCEL and MINITAB can be
programmed to identify out-of- range values for each variable and
print out the respondent code, variable code, variable name,
record number, column number, and out-of-range value.
• Extreme values should be closely examined.
Treatment of Missing Responses
 Substitute a Neutral Value – A neutral value, typically the mean
response to the variable, is substituted for the missing responses.
 Substitute an Imputed Response – The respondents' pattern of
responses to other questions are used to impute or calculate a suitable
response to the missing questions.
 In casewise deletion, cases, or respondents, with any missing
responses are discarded from the analysis.
 In pairwise deletion, instead of discarding all cases with any
missing values, the researcher uses only the cases or respondents
with complete responses for each calculation.
Statistically Adjusting the Data
■ Weighting, in weighing, each case or
respondent in the database is assigned a
weight to reflect its importance relative to
other cases or respondents.
■ Weighting is most widely used to make the
sample data more representative of a target
population on specific characteristics.
■ Yet another use of weighting is to adjust the
sample so that greater importance is attached to
respondents with certain characteristics.
 REPORT WRITING
1. Title page
2. Table of Contents
3. Introduction
4. Research Methodology
Statement of Objectives
Research design
Data collection methods
Fieldwork
Limitations
5. Data Analysis (graphs
pie chart)
6. Conclusion
7.Recommendati
on Appendices
Questionnaire
References
 Referencing Styles and Technique

 Harvard style of referencing.

 American Psychological Association style
(APA)
 Vancouver style.
 MLA citation style (modern language
association).
 The Chicago manual of style.
Harvard style of referencing
 Author’s name followed by its initials.
 Year of publication.
 Article title with single quotation mark followed by full stop.
 Name of Journal in italic form.
 Volume followed by a comma
 Issue number in bracket.
 Page number.
Example
 Shin, K.R., Ha, J.Y. and Kim, K.H. (2005). A Study of Critical Thinking
Longitudinal
Dispositions & Critical Thinking Skills in Baccalaureate Nursing Students. Journal of Korean
Academy of Nursing, 35(2), p.382.
Vancouver style
 Author Surname followed by Initials.
 Title of article followed by double quotation.
 Title of journal (abbreviated).
 Date of Publication followed by double quotation.
 Volume Number.
 Issue Number in bracket.
 Page Number.
Example
 Shin KR, Ha JY, Kim KH. A Longitudinal Study of Critical Thinking Dispositions & Critical
Thinking Skills in Baccalaureate Nursing Students. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing.
2005;35(2):382.
American Psychological Association style (APA)
 Author’s name followed by its initials.
 Year of publication.
 Article title followed by full stop.
 Name of Journal in italic form
 Volume followed by a comma
 Page number
Example
 Shin, K. R., Ha, J. Y., & Kim, K. H. (2005). A Longitudinal Study of Critical Thinking Dispositions &
Critical Thinking Skills in Baccalaureate Nursing Students. Journal of Korean Academy of
Nursing, 35(2), 382. https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2005.35.2.382
MLA citation style (modern language association)
 Authors name.
 Title of article.
 Name of journal.
 Volume number followed by decimal & issue number.
 Year of publication.
 Page numbers.
 Medium of publication.
Example
 Shin, Kyung Rim, et al. “A Longitudinal Study of Critical Thinking Dispositions & Critical
Thinking Skills in Baccalaureate Nursing Students.” Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, vol.
35, no. 2, 2005, p. 382, https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2005.35.2.382.
 The Chicago manual
 Name of author.
 Article title in double quotation mark.
 Title of journal in italic.
 Volume.
 Year of publication.
 Page number.
Example
 Shin, Kyung Rim, Ju Young Ha, and Kon Hee Kim. “A
Longitudinal Study of Critical Thinking Dispositions &
Critical Thinking Skills in Baccalaureate Nursing
Students.” Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing 35,
no. 2 (2005):
382.
https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2005.35.2.382.
Referencing Types