1

BTEE 413

ELECTRICAL POWER QUALITY

 1.0: Introduction
2

 Power system operations can be affected by (i)a number

of system disturbances/anomalies, as well as (ii)
unbalanced loadings.
 These anomalies/disturbances and unbalance loadings
usually give rise to (i) distortions or asymmetry of the
voltage and current waveforms, as well as (ii)general
power quality issues.
 The normal operation of power consuming devices is
determined to a large extent by the quality of the power
supply
 A deterioration of the quality of supply may influence
considerably the consumers’ demand
 1.0: Introduction (2)
3
(Consequences of poor power quality)
 The consequences of poor power quality include:
 reduced efficiency of working mechanisms,
 poor end-products,
 shorter service life of electric equipment,
 higher rate of fault occurrence,
 A number of power quality parameters are available to
evaluate or characterize power quality.
 1.0: Introduction (3)
4
(Power quality parameters)
 Some of the power quality parameters include:
1) Frequency deviation (usually ± 0.1 Hz, but not more
than ± 0.2 Hz)
2) Voltage deviation
3) Distortion of the sinusoidal voltage waveform (assumed
sinusoidal if the higher harmonics do not exceed 5 % of
the voltage at the fundamental frequency)
4) Neutral offset or shift
5) Non-symmetry of the phase voltages
6) Ripple factor
 1.1: System disturbances
5
(The Categories)
 Power system disturbances may be divided broadly into six
categories. These are:
1) Transients
2) Voltage dips and momentary interruptions
3) Voltage sags and swells
4) Overvoltage and undervoltage
5) Harmonic distortion
6) Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or Electric noise
 Of these anomalies, the three potentially destructive
disturbances that are usually passed on to customers
externally, are (i) transients, (ii) over-voltages and (iii)
voltage harmonic distortions.
 1.2: Transients
6
(Definition)
 Transients are sub-cycle, sudden and fast
disturbances with significant changes in the
power system parameters.
 They typically have frequencies ranging from tens
to hundreds of kilohertz, with some even into
megahertz.
 The associated voltage excursions range from
hundreds to thousands of volts.
 Transients are also called spikes, impulses and
surges.
 1.2: Transients (2)
7
(Causes)
 Transients are caused by either of the following disturbances:
 generator shifting/sudden change in output
 faults and related outages;
 sudden addition or removal of a heavy load;
 lightning strikes;
 high wind and other stimuli that cause poor disconnection or
loose contact, resulting in arcing.
 routine utility switching operations (such as on/off disconnects,
capacitor bank switching, tap changing of transformers, etc.).
 The most notable and destructive transients are that caused by
lightning and switching
 1.2: Transients (3)
8
(Broad categorizations)
 Transients may be broadly categorized as follows,
depending on the:
1) cause, whether external or internal
2) speed and behaviour;
3) state, whether normal (steady-state) or abnormal
(fault);
 The next slides looks into much more details of the
categorizations.
 1.2.1: External and Internal
9
Transients
 External Transients – they occur due to lightning
 Internal Transients – they occur due to switching (opening
and closing) operations

 The ability of a system to overcome this sudden change and

return the system to its normal or stable operating conditions
after being subjected to some form of disturbance or
perturbation is termed transient stability
 1.2.2: Electromagnetic and
10
Electromechanical Transients
 Transients may also be classified into 2, depending upon the
speed and behavior, even though they are interrelated:
 These are electromagnetic and electromechanical transients
 Electromagnetic Transients –
 They bring about changes in voltages and currents as a result of
the disturbances;
 They are very fast, and give rise to deviations from the normal
sine wave form or value
 Transients that exceed the normal voltage are called spikes.
 Transients that drop below normal voltage are called sags.
 1.2.2: Electromagnetic and
11
Electromechanical Transients (2)
 Electromechanical Transients –
 They arise due to, say, an outage of a transmission line, when
the electrical power produced by a generator does not equal
the mechanical power that drives the generator itself, causing
the generator to either speed up or slow down compared to
its normal rotation speed.
 They give rise to changes in rotor speed or angle
 They are relatively slower than electromagnetic transients,
due to the inertia of the huge generator shafts
 However, they're too quick for a human reaction or
intervention, and this can lead to some undesired situations
if proper control system have not been put in place to deal
with those contingency situations.
 1.2.3: Normal and Fault Transients
12

 In a power system, it is necessary to distinguish between

a normal transient and a fault transient.
 A Normal Transient occurs during ordinary
operations, e.g., switching in or switching out a
transformer, transmission line having large capacitance
and inductance, etc.
 During a normal transient, the variables defining the
state DO NOT differ greatly from their values in the
steady-state.
 1.2.3: Normal and Fault Transients
13
(2)
 A Fault Transient, however, is caused by fault or
some accidental change in the system such as:
1) ground faults (L-G, L-L-G),
2) short-circuit or three-phase faults,
3) lightning strokes,
4) erroneous operation of circuit breakers,
5) etc.
 During a fault transient, there are sharp
discontinuities or variations in the values of the
variables before and during the fault.
 1.2.4: Possible Solutions to
14
transients
1) For lightning, there is no substitute for a quality
lightning arrestor system.
a) A system should include proper earth connection – not
necessarily connection to the building’s ground system.
b) Conduction path clearances must be maintained to ensure no
energy couples into facility wiring
2) Where lightning is common, we can add to the arrestor
system a transient voltage suppressor system (TVSS).
3) Other technologies such as transformer-based power
conditioners, placed at panels or at the point of
concern, can prevent the costly side-effects of
transients.
 1.2.4: Possible Solutions to
15
transients (2)
4) If the levels of impulse allowed through a TVSS device
are still a problem, then ferro-resonant line
conditioners can be used effectively to eliminate spikes.
5) There is a problem from transients known as “back-
door hits”. This refers to the issue when a transient
enters an electronic device through the I/O ports via data
cables, rather than form the power lines.
6) To prevent back-door hits, data line protectors may
be used. These are small devices that connect directly to
the output port, and the data cables connect to it.
 1.3: Voltage Dips and Momentary
16
Disruptions
 To maintain overall system performance, utilities
periodically do large grid switching.
 This switching can introduce momentary voltage
interruptions.
 Momentary interruption refers to a loss of voltage
ranging in duration from less than a cycle to several
cycles.
 Though they do not last long enough to be called outages,
in reality that’s what they are.
 In short, momentary interruptions may be seen as very
brief outages, typically lasting less than a cycle in
duration.
 1.3: Voltage Dips and Momentary
17
Disruptions (2)
 The momentary interruption hardly exists by the time it gets
to most customers
 But momentary interruptions are important concerns for
those customers close to substations, or those who have
distribution switches at their service entrance.
 The electronic devices in a customer’s business will
probably withstand short duration interruptions during
change. But the equipment will respond adversely to longer
interruptions
 The power supplies may not be able to keep the DC voltage
perfectly stable, contributing to equipment problems like
lock-ups and restarts
 1.3.1: Possible Solutions to Voltage Dips
18
and Momentary Disruptions
 Replacement of the user’s power supplies with supplies
that have longer ride-through times. This may resolve
the problem
 Installation of an energy-storage device such as
 a stand-by power system (SPS), or
 an uninterruptible power system (UPS).
 These devices, if properly specified and installed, will
provide the needed ride-through time

 1.4: Voltage Sags and Swells
19

 Voltage sags and swells are variations in the RMS voltage

from about one-half cycle to several seconds
 Sags refers to a reduction in the voltage, while swells deal
with a voltage increase.
 If a sag lasts longer than several seconds, it is referred to
as an undervoltage.
 If a swell lasts longer than several seconds, it is referred to
as an overvoltage.
 In short, sags and swells are short duration changes in the
RMS level of the voltage, and they typically last for a few
seconds
 1.4: Voltage Sags and Swells (2)
20

 Basically, sags and swells result from load changes and

system impedance.
 If there is a sudden increase in current due to a load
turning on, then a sag will result.
 On single phase circuits, a corresponding neutral-ground
(N-G) swell also occurs
 However, if a load is turned off, it produces a momentary
increase in the voltage, or swell.
 1.4.1: Effect of Voltage Swells
21

 Swells, including N-G swells, can easily damage equipment.

 Power supplies controlling all manner of devices are the
most common victims of a swell.
 1.4.2: Effect of Voltage Sags
22

 Sags, however, do not directly cause damage, but they

initiate problems indirectly.
 For example, a sag may cause a laser machine to restart,
thus damaging the product it is making.
 When a sag occurs, an electronic device’s power supply
uses some of its stored energy to compensate for the loss of
input voltage
 If enough energy is lost due to the sag, then the power
supply may lose its ability to maintain an exact DC voltage
to all the integrated circuits inside a device – if even for a
few milliseconds
 1.4.2: Effect of Voltage Sags (2)
23

 This few milliseconds is enough time for the digital 1’s and
0’s inside to get confused, and data gets lost or corrupted.
 And so the lost energy from the sag may not be enough to
shut down the device, but only enough to confuse the
digital components.
 Following from the “confusion” of the digital components,
a lock-up may result.
 Since the device switch is still on, as soon as the sag is over
and the voltage has returned to nominal, the system turns
back on, or restarting occurs.

 1.4.3: Possible Solutions to Voltage
24
Sags and Swells
 Since sags and swells are closely dependent on the wiring or system
impedance, a possible solution to remedy these types of
disturbances is to increase the wire size of the distribution path.
 The increasing in wire size also decreases the impedance,
ultimately reducing the magnitude of the disturbance.
 If these steps are not possible, then you must introduce an energy
storage device or a form of voltage regulator to maintain
voltage stability and protect equipment.
 Products that (i) provide longer ride-through times such as
enhanced power supplies, (ii) regulate the voltage such as tap-
switching power conditioners, or (iii) switch to temporary back-
up power like an SPS, will suffice
 1.5: Overvoltage and Undervoltage
25

 If a sag or swell last for longer than several seconds, it is

referred to as an undervoltage or overvoltage.
 These over-/undervoltage disturbances may last
indefinitely.
 Problems on the utility grid can cause higher than nominal
voltages to exist long enough to adversely affect facilities.
 This situation might happen because of problems with
voltage regulation capacitors or transmission or
distribution transformers
 The utility does have overvoltage protection, but often
these devices might not respond fast enough to completely
protect all equipment downstream.
 1.5.1: Possible Solutions for
26
Overvoltage
 There are two basic solutions or philosophical
approaches to utility-based overvoltage problems.
 The first philosophy is to protect the facility from these
disturbances at the expense of uptime.
 In other words, if an overvoltage occurs, shut down the
power.
 This is done through devices that sense the voltage level,
and if they exceed a preset limit, they operate to open the
circuit.
 1.5.1: Possible Solutions for
27
Overvoltage (2)
 The second philosophy is to protect the facility, or at
least sensitive parts of it, at the expense of money.
 This approach maintains uptime, while providing
controlled voltage regulation.
 Voltage regulators are employed to stabilize the voltage
under a number of systems disturbances, including
overvoltage.
 An uninterruptible power system (UPS), may also be
provided, especially for sensitive loads.
 1.6: Harmonic Distortions
28
 If the voltage or current wave shape is not sinusoidal, it is
considered a distorted wave, or that there is harmonic distortion.

 Harmonic refers to the integer multiples of the fundamental

frequency (50 Hz in Ghana).
 Sub-harmonics are sinusoid components with frequencies which
are not integer, but are fractional multiples of the fundamental
 Harmonic distortion is found in both the current and voltage
waveform. Other basic definitions follow.
 1.6.1: Harmonic order, h
29

 Harmonic order, h, - is the ratio of the frequency tof the

n
fundamental power frequency (be it 50 Hz or 60 Hz)
fn
h
f1
 Thus by definition, the harmonic order of the fundamental
is equal to 1.
 The harmonic off1order is often referred to simply as the
harmonic.
th
h
 Odd harmonics – harmonics that are odd integer multiples
of the fundamental, (h=3,5,7,9, ….)
 Even harmonics - harmonics that are even integer multiples
of the fundamental, (h=2,4,6,8,….)
 1.6.2: Harmonic Spectrum
30

 Harmonic spectrum is the distribution of the amplitudes

of the various harmonics as a function of their harmonic
number, often expressed in the form of a histogram
 1.6.3: Expression for Distorted Wave
31

 These higher frequencies can disrupt, degrade and

damage equipment
 Any non-periodic phenomenon or function (of frequency )
can be represented by or broken down using Fourier Series
into a sum of sinusoidal waves of frequency
 Mathematically,

y (t )  Y0   Yh 2 sin( 2fh   h )
h 1
 Y0 = amplitude of the DC component
th
 Yh = the r.m.s value of the harmonichcomponent when t=0
 1.6.4: RMS Value of the Harmonic
32
Quantity
 Harmonic quantities are generally expressed in terms of
their r.m.s. value, since the heating effect depends on this
value of the distorted waveform
 For a distorted quantity, under steady-state conditions, the
energy dissipated by the Joule effect is the sum of the
energies dissipated by each of the harmonic components.
 Thus,
RI rms 2 t  RI12 t  RI 2 2 t  RI h 2 t  ......RI n 2 t

 I rms 2  I12  I 2 2  I h 2  ....I n 2

n  2
 I rms   In
n 1
 1.6.5: Total Harmonic Distortion
33

 The total harmonic distortion, THD (also referred to as total

harmonic factor) measures the signal distortion.
 It quantifies the thermal effect of all the harmonics.
 It is the ratio of the r.m.s. value of all the harmonics to that
of the fundamental
 Thus
 2
 Yh
h2
THD 
Y1
 1.6.6: Sources of Harmonics
34

 Non-linear equipment or components in the power

system cause distortion of the current and to a lesser
extent of the voltage
 These sources of harmonic distortion can be divided in
three groups, namely:
1) non-linear loads
2) power system itself (HVDC, SVC, transformers, etc.)
3) generation stage (synchronous generators)
 NOTE: Non-linear loads and rectifier circuits are the
dominant harmonic-generating group
 1.6.6.1: Nonlinear loads and their
35
spheres of activity
 1.6.6.2: Typical waveform and spectrum of
36 current from 4-pulse rectifier circuit

 Current waveform

 Spectrum
 1.6.7: Effect of load symmetry on
37
harmonics
 Symmetrical loads are those that the current half-waves are
equal and opposing

 Mathematically, symmetry can be expressed by the equation

f (t   )   f (t )
 Assuming: that the distorted current contains a second
harmonic, it is possible to write, for example:

I (t )  I1 sin t  I 2 sin 2t

 1.6.7: Effect of load symmetry on
38
harmonics (2)
 Hence by extension:
I (t   )  I1 sin(t   )  I 2 sin 2(t   )
  I1 sin t  I 2 sin 2t

 But for symmetry (symmetrical load),

I (t   )   I (t )
 The RHS of the two equations above can be true, IF and
ONLF IF, I2 = 0 (i.e., the amplitude of the second
harmonic term is zero)
 1.6.7: Effect of load symmetry on
39
harmonics (3)
 In fact, the same reasoning can be extended to all even order
harmonics.
 And so for the case of symmetrical loads, the even order
harmonics are zero or automatically suppressed.
 In short, SYMMETRY SUPPRESSES EVEN-ORDER
HARMONICS.
 Since the majority of loads connected to the power network are
symmetrical
 The even order harmonics are zero or will be automatically
suppressed
 Consequently, ONLY THE ODD ORDER HARMONICS
WOULD BE CONSIDERED in the treatment of harmonics in
power networks connected to symmetrical loads
 1.6.8: Effect of balance loading on
40
harmonics
 Consider a symmetrical, balanced, non-linear 3-phase load
(balance: has phase lag of 120 deg.)
 Assume that the currents drawn by this load include the third
harmonic
 Then the third harmonic currents of each of the phases “a”,
“b”, and “c” can be written as:
I a 3  I 3 sin 3(t )
 2 
I b3  I 3 sin 3 t    I 3 sin( 3t  2 )  I a 3
 3 
 4 
I c 3  I 3 sin 3 t    I 3 sin( 3t  4 )  I a 3
 3 
 I a 3  I b3  I c3
 1.6.8: Effect of balanced loading on
41
harmonics (2)
 Consequently:
 For balanced loading, the third order harmonic currents of
all three phases are equal.
 1.6.8.1: Symmetrical, balanced nonlinear 3-
42 phase loads WITHOUT neutral

 If there is NO NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR, then the neutral

current, which is the sum of the phase currents, is zero
 That is, I  I  I  0 (For the case of no neutral conductor)
a b c
 The sum of the third order harmonic currents in particular
should be zero,
 And this is only possible if each of the harmonic
components is zero.
 1.6.8.1: Symmetrical, balanced nonlinear 3-
43 phase loads WITHOUT neutral (2)
 Symmetrical, balanced, 3-phase loads therefore do
NOT generate a third harmonic.
 This reasoning can be extended to all harmonic orders
which are multiples of 3, the so-called triplen harmonics
 In summary, SYMMETRICAL, BALANCED, 3-phase
LOADS DO NOT GENERATE THIRD-ORDER
HARMONICS AS WELL AS THEIR MULTIPLES
OF 3 (the so-called TRIPLEN HARMONICS)
 Triplen harmonics are the harmonic orders which are
ODD MULTIPLES OF 3
 namely, those of the order 3, 9, 15, 21, 27, etc.
 1.6.8.2: Typical waveform and spectrum of
44 current from 3-phase bridge rectifier circuit
 Waveform

 Spectrum

 NOTES: (i) Only odd harmonics are generated, (ii) but no

triplens (i.e., multiples of 3)are generated.
 1.6.8.3: Typical waveform and spectrum of
45 current from 1-phase bridge rectifier circuit
 Waveform

 Spectrum

 NOTE: Percentagewise, the third-order harmonic is the

dominant harmonic for single-phase loads.
 1.6.9: Effect of triplen harmonics
46

 The problematic harmonics are the 3rd, 9th, 15th, etc., which
are called triplen harmonics, because the currents add up
in the neutral conductor (this fact will be shown
mathematically in later slide)
 Because they add up in neutral, they can cause the
conductor to heat and burn, a potential fire hazard and
voltage imbalance
 Phase-to-neutral nonlinear loads having switch-mode power
supplies generate them.
 These power supplies draw current only at the peak of the
voltage sine wave.
 1.6.9.1: Effect of triplen harmonics on non-
47 linear single-phase balanced loads
 If the loads are non-linear,
 the phase currents are non-sinusoidal and
 therefore contain harmonics, particularly of orders which are
multiples of 3
 The currents are
I r 3  I 3 sin 3(t )
 2 
I s 3  I 3 sin 3 t    I 3 sin( 3t  2 )  I r 3
 3 
 4 
I t 3  I 3 sin 3 t    I 3 sin( 3t  4 )  I r 3
 3 

 I r 3  I s3  I t 3
 1.6.9.1: Effect of triplen harmonics on non-
48 linear single-phase balanced loads (2)
 From the deduction, the third harmonic currents in all 3
phases are identical.
 Since the current in the neutral is equal to the sum of the
currents in the phases, the harmonic component of order 3
of the neutral current is equal to the sum of the components
of the order 3, that is,
I n3   I i  I r 3  I s 3  I t 3
 3I r 3
 And so for balanced single-phase loads, the third harmonic
component of the neutral current is 3 times the third
harmonic component of the phase current.
 1.6.9.1: Effect of triplen harmonics on non-
49 linear single-phase balanced loads (3)
 Generally:
 for balanced single-phase loads, the harmonic
currents of orders which are a multiple of 3 are in
phase and add up arithmetically in the neutral
conductor
 Therefore, because of the adding up, the THIRD
HARMONIC CURRENTS are called ZERO-
SEQUENCE CURRENTS, circulating in phase in
all three phases
 the fundamental components and harmonics of orders
which are non-multiples of 3, on the other hand,
rather cancel one another out.
 1.6.9.2: Waveform of Phase and Neutral
50 Currents of Triplen Harmonics

 Note: Triplen harmonic currents add up in the neutral

(refer to the lower waveform)
 1.6.9.3: Spectrum of Phase Currents of Triplen
51 Harmonics

 Note: Spectrum contains odd harmonics

 1.6.9.4: Spectrum of Neutral Current of
52 Triplen Harmonics

 NOTE: Neutral current contains only the triplens, i.e., odd

multiples of 3 (3, 9, 15, 21, etc.)
 1.6.10: Effect of winding connection
53
on third harmonics
 We shall be looking at the following:

 Effect of delta-star transformer on third harmonic

 Effect of star connection on third harmonic

 Effect of delta connection on third harmonic

 1.6.10.1: Effect of delta-star
54
transformer on third harmonics
 Consider a delta-star transformer supplying identical non-
linear loads connected between phase and neutral as in the Fig
below.
I3

I 3 I 3 I3

I3
I 3
 1.6.9.1: Effect of delta-star transformer
55
on third harmonics (2)
 Assume each of the non-linear loads at the secondary
star-side generates a third order harmonic current .
 An equivalent harmonicI 3 current of will be generated
I 
at the primary delta-side, that is, confined inside
3 the
delta winding.
 Consequently:
 For a delta-star transformer supplying identical
non-linear loads, third-order harmonic currents
are confined in the delta winding and NOT
transmitted to the network.
 1.6.10.2: Effect of star-connection on
56
third harmonics
 The line voltage is given as VAB  VA  VB
 For the third harmonic component, the line voltage is

VAB 3  VA3  VB3

 V3m sin 3t  V3m sin 3(t  120)
0
 Consequently:
 For star connection, the line voltages are FREE from
third-order harmonics (as well as the triplen
harmonics)
 However, phase voltages do contain third harmonics
 1.6.10.3: Effect of delta-connection
57
on third harmonics
 The 3rd harmonic currents in the phases can be
written as:
I A3  I 3m sin 3t
I B3  I 3m sin 3(t  120)  I 3m sin 3t
I C 3  I 3m sin 3(t  240)  I 3m sin 3t

 Hence the line current is

I AB 3  I A3  I B3
 I 3m sin 3t  V3m sin 3(t  120)
0
 1.6.10.3: Effect of delta-connection on
58
third harmonics (2)
 Consequently:
 For delta connection, the line currents are FREE
from triplen harmonics
 However, triplen harmonic magnetising currents
can flow in the phase windings
 1.6.11: Effect of harmonics
59

 The consequences of harmonics are linked to the

increase in the following:
 peak values, (leads to dielectric breakdown)
 rms values, (leads to excessive overheating) and
 frequency spectrum, (leads to vibration and
mechanical stress)
of voltages and current.

 We shall be looking at the different consequences:

 1.6.11: Effect of harmonics (2)
60

1) Excessive voltage distortions – have serious implications

on insulations, could lead to insulation breakdown or
rupture.
2) Increased power system losses – leading to excessive
overheating.
3) Ferro-resonance and its attendant overvoltages.
4) Lighting flickers – due to sub-harmonics in the frequency
range of 1 – 30 Hz
5) Conductor overheating – is a function of the square r.m.s.
current per volume of the conductor. Harmonic currents on
undersized conductors or cables cause “skin effect”, which
increases with frequency and is similar to centrifugal force.
 1.6.11: Effect of harmonics (3)
61

6) Overloaded power-factor-correction capacitor banks – the

capacitor banks experience overloading and can be affected
by heat rise and lead to reduced lifespan. If a capacitor is
tuned to one of the characteristic harmonics such as the 5 th or
7th, resonance and resulting overvoltage can cause dielectric
failure or rupture.
7) Interference and noise in telephone and communication
equipment.
8) Overloaded neutrals – triplen harmonics add up in the
neutral wire and cause overheating
9) Elevated neutral-to-ground voltage – causing some local
area network to malfunction
 1.6.11: Effect of harmonics (4)
62

10) Nuisance tripping of fuses and circuit breaker at

customer facilities –
 Fuses respond to the true RMS heating value of the load
current and melt when the fuse element becomes too hot.
 Significant harmonic currents cause excess heating that can
cause shifts in the time current characteristics of the device.
 Links in certain cases are susceptible to skin effect heating by
harmonics.
 Harmonics can affect the current interruption capacities of the
circuit breaker.
 Harmonics can cause false or spurious operations and
nuisance trippings, leading to blackouts or blowing
components or equipment damage for no apparent reason.
 1.6.11: Effect of harmonics (5)
63

11) Rotating and electronic equipment failure –

Harmonics can cause failure of the commutation circuits
found in DC drives and AC drives with silicon-
controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
12) Overheated transformers and motors, resulting in
shortened life
13) Malfunction of protective relays – harmonics may
cause relays to operate improperly or not to operate when
required
14) Transformers (core losses) –experience increased
hysteresis losses and eddy current losses due to stray
flux losses. This causes excessive overheating in the
transformer windings.
 1.6.11: Effect of harmonics (6)
64

15) Generators – have similar problems to transformers.

Excessive harmonic voltage distortion will cause multiple
zero crossings of the current waveform. Multiple zero
crossings affect the timing of the voltage regulator,
causing interference and operation instability.
16) Computers ­– experience failure and lock ups.
17) Utility metering problems – Utility meters may record
measurements incorrectly, resulting in higher billings to
customers.
18) Reduced power factor
 1.6.12: Mitigating measures against
65
harmonics
 There are three (3) possible ways of suppressing or at
least reducing the influence of harmonics.
 These are:
1. Reducing generated harmonic currents
2. Modifying the installation
3. Filtering the harmonics
 1.6.12.1: Reducing generated
66
harmonic currents
1) Line Choke or Series Inductor
 It reduces the line current harmonics, (especially high-order
harmonics) and therefore the rms value of the current
consumption and the distortion at inverter connection point
2) Use of 12-pulse rectifiers
 they help eliminate the troublesome low-order harmonics
(5th, 7th), which cause the most disturbances owing to their
large amplitude
dv / dt di / dt
3) Reduced and switching times (the rates of change
of voltage and current with time)
 Fast switching times produce high levels of energy in higher-
frequency harmonics and more chance of creating harmonic
interference in telephone and radio circuits.
 1.6.12.2: Modifying the installations
67

1. Derating of equipment
2. Segregation of polluting loads
 the polluting loads must be identified and separated
from the sensitive loads, for example, by powering
them from separate sources or from dedicated
transformers.
3. Oversizing of neutrals (by say 200%), switchgears and
capacitors
4. Using separate neutral conductors (instead of a
common neutral).
 1.6.11.2: Modifying the installations
68
(2)
5. Special protective devices – that are sensitive to
harmonics
6. Employing K-rated transformers.
 K-rated transformers are specially-designed
transformers that have been developed to accommodate
the additional heating caused by harmonic currents.
7. Installing special transformers
 There are several types of transformer connections which
can cancel harmonics.
 For example, the traditional delta-wye transformer
connection will trap all the triplen harmonics (3rd, 9th, 15th,
21st, etc) in the delta winding
 1.6.12.3: Filtering the harmonics
69

 The third technique for reducing harmonics involves the

use of electronic filters
 Filtering lower frequencies also requires significantly
large filter components
 Filtering harmonic noise from the power input can mean
filtering down to its 5th harmonic (e.g. 250 Hz for a 50 Hz
mains powered system, or 83.33 Hz for a 16.67 Hz
traction power system).