The Nervous System

An Overview of the
Nervous System

The nervous system controls the many

body functions.

It also allows for higher functions such as

thinking.
Somatic and Autonomic Divisions
of the PNS
 The Central Nervous System
• The nervous system consists of two parts: the
central and peripheral nervous systems.
• The central nervous system (CNS) is made up
of the brain and spinal cord.
– Receptors transmit sensory input to the CNS via
sensory neurons.
– The CNS integrates all sensory input and
generates appropriate responses.
– Motor output leaves the CNS in motor neurons.
 The Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
consists of:
– spinal nerves
– cranial nerves
• The peripheral contains the somatic and the
autonomic subdivisions.
– The autonomic division controls involuntary
actions.
– The somatic division largely controls voluntary
actions.
 The Structure of the Neuron
• All neurons consist of a cell body and two
types of processes.
– Dendrites: conduct impulses to the cell body.
– Axons: conduct impulses away from the cell
body.
– The terminal ends of axons branch, forming
fibers that end in small knobs called terminal
boutons.
 The Myelin Sheath
• Axons in the CNS and PNS contain an
insulating layer, the myelin sheath.
• It greatly increases the rate of transmission
of nerve impulses.
• Nerve impulses “jump” over gaps in the
sheath, the nodes of Ranvier.
 Nerve Cell Repair

• Neurons lose the ability to divide.

• Neurons that die cannot be replaced by
existing cells.
• Undamaged, live neurons can sometimes
take over the function of those that are
damaged or die.
 Oxygen Sensitivity of Nerve Cells
• Neurons have a high metabolic demand.
• They are highly susceptible to loss of oxygen
and glucose.
• Lack of oxygen in the brain often results in
permanent brain damage.
• The longer the oxygen deprivation, the
greater the damage.
 Nerve Cell Impulses
• Nerve impulses result from the flow
of ions across their plasma
membranes.
• The electrical potential across the
membrane is known as the
membrane potential or resting
potential.
 The Action Potential
• When a nerve cell is stimulated, its plasma
membrane increases its permeability to
sodium ions.
• Sodium ions rush in, causing depolarization
down the membrane.
• Depolarization is followed by repolarization.
• The depolarization and repolarization of the
neuron’s plasma membrane constitute a
bioelectric impulse or action potential.
 Nerve Cell Transmission
• Nerve impulses are waves of depolarization.
• Depolarization in one region increases
membrane permeability in adjacent regions.
• This causes depolarization of the new region.
Saltatory Conduction
 SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

• Nerve impulses travel from

one neuron to another across
synapses.
• When an impulse reaches the
terminal bouton,, it stimulates
the release of
neurotransmitters.
 Excitation and Inhibition

• Neurotransmitters may excite or inhibit

the postsynaptic membrane.
• If the number of excitatory impulses
exceeds the number of inhibitory
impulses, a nerve impulse will be
generated.
 Limiting a Neuronal Response

• Neurotransmitters are quickly

removed from the synapse.
• They are destroyed by enzymes
in the synaptic cleft.
Altering Synaptic Transmission
Many common chemical substances
alter synaptic transmission.
– Insecticides
– Anesthetics
– Antidepressants
– Caffeine
– Cocaine
 The Spinal Cord and Nerves
• The spinal cord is part of
the central nervous
system
CRANIAL NERVES: 12 PAIRS
 Spinal Nerves: 31 PAIRS
• The spinal cord gives off numerous
nerves that supply the body.
• The central portion of the spinal cord is
an H-shaped zone of gray matter.
– Gray matter contains nerve cell
bodies.
• The white matter contains axons and
dendrites.
SPINAL NERVES
 Sensory and Motor Neurons
• The nerves attached to the spinal
cord carry sensory and motor
impulses.
• Some nerves are strictly motor and
some are strictly sensory.
– Many transmit both motor and
sensory impulses.
 Interneurons
• Interneurons connect sensory and
motor neurons in the spinal cord.
• In the reflex arc, sensory impulses
from receptors reach effectors without
traveling to the brain (i.e. when you
touch something hot).
REFLEX ARC
 Damage to the Spinal Cord

• Injury to the spinal cord can

cause permanent damage.
• The severity of the injury
depends on:
–its location
–the extent of the damage
 The Autonomic Nervous System
• The ANS controls many body functions not
under conscious control.
• It is a division of the peripheral nervous
system.
• It helps control internal organs through control
of:
– smooth muscle
– cardiac muscle
– glands
 The Autonomic Nervous System
• The ANS has two subdivisions:
– the sympathetic
– the parasympathetic
• The sympathetic is responsible for the fight-
or-fight response.
• The parasympathetic is responsible for
internal responses associated with the
relaxed state.
The Autonomic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
The Brain
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid cushions the CNS.
• It is similar in composition to blood plasma and interstitial fluid.
• Hydrocephalus occurs in children when CSF does not drain properly into the
bloodstream .
 The Cerebrum
• The cerebral hemispheres function in
integration, sensory reception, and motor
action.
– The cerebrum with its two cerebral hemispheres is
the largest part of the brain (about 80 percent of
total mass).
– The outer layer of each hemisphere is the cortex.
– The cerebral cortex consists of many discrete
functional regions including motor, sensory, and
association areas.
The Cerebrum
The Cerebrum
FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM LOBES
 The Primary Motor Cortex
• The primary motor cortex controls voluntary
movement.
• Each region of the motor cortex controls a
specific body part.
• A conscious thought stimulates the neurons
of the primary motor cortex to generate an
impulse.
 The Primary Sensory Cortex and
The Association Cortex

• The primary sensory cortex receives

sensory information from the body.
• The association cortex is the site of
integration and complex intellectual
activities.
 Unconscious Functions
• Unconscious functions are housed in the:
– Cerebellum
– Hypothalamus
– Brain stem
• They include functions such as:
– Breathing
– Heartbeat
– Homeostatic Functions
 The Cerebellum
• The cerebellum:
– controls muscle synergy
– helps maintain posture
• Cerebral palsy is the result of severe
impairment of the cerebellum.
– This can be caused by lack of
oxygen.
 The Thalamus and Hypothalamus
• The thalamus is a relay center.
– It relays some sensory information to the
sensory and association cortexes.
• The hypothalamus controls many autonomic
functions involved in homeostasis.
– Appetite
– Body temperature
– Water balance
– Blood pressure
The Thalamus and Hypothalamus
 The Limbic System
• The limbic system is
the site of instinctive
behavior and emotion.
• Stimulation of specific
regions within the
limbic system may
elicit sensations.
 The Brain Stem
• Many basic body functions are controlled by
the brain stem.
• The reticular formation resides in the brain
stem.
– It receives input from incoming and outgoing
neurons.
– Fibers projecting from the reticular formation
to the cortex constitute the reticular
activating system (RAS).
The Reticular Activating System
 Measuring Electrical Activity of
the Brain
• Electrical activity of the brain varies depending
on activity level or level of sleep.
• Electrodes applied to different parts of the
scalp detect electrical activity in the brain.
– This produces an electroencephalogram
(EEG).
• EEGs are used to diagnose brain dysfunction.
EEG
 Headaches
• Headaches have many causes.
– Tension: sustained tightening of the
muscles of the head and neck
– Swelling of the membranes lining the
sinuses.
– Eyestrain
– Increased pressure inside the skull caused
by a brain tumor or internal bleeding.
– Inflammation caused by an infection of the
meninges or the brain.
– Migraines
 Learning and Memory
• Learning is the acquisition of new
information and skills.
• Memory is the storage and recall of
information.
• Short-term memory retains information
for
periods of seconds to hours.
• Long-term memory holds information for
periods of days to years.
 Where are Memories Stored?
• Memory is stored in multiple regions
of the brain:
– Temporal Lobe
– Cerebellum
– Limbic System
• The hippocampus appears essential
for transferring short-term memories
into long-term memory.
 Maintaining Mental Acuity in
Old Age
• New evidence suggests that brain
function can be retained in old age.
• Connections among brain cells may
strengthen over time if individuals remain
intellectually challenged.
• Regular aerobic exercise helps elderly
people perform certain mental functions.
 Diseases of the Brain
• Alzheimer’s Disease
– Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive loss of
mental function.
– The brains of Alzheimer’s patients contain
fibrous clumps of protein from degenerated
nerve cells.
– Proteins called beta-amyloid may bind to nerve
cells in the brain and cause cell death.
– While there is currently no cure, there are drugs
that can slow down the process.
 Parkinson’s Disease
• Parkinson’s Disease is characterized
by:
– Tremors
– A lack of dopamine in the brain
• It is caused by progressive deterioration
of brain centers that control movement.
• Drugs and surgery can be used in
treatment.
 Multiple Sclerosis (MS)
• MS is caused by a destruction of the
myelin sheath of nerve cells in the
CNS.
• The damaged myelin results in nerve
cell death that leads to:
– numbness
– slurred speech
– paralysis
 Brain Tumors
• Two types of tumors develop in the brain tissue:
– benign
– malignant
• Benign tumors do not grow uncontrollably or spread.
– They can cause problems by placing pressure on areas of
the brain.
• Malignant tumors grow rapidly.
– They may place pressure on or invade adjacent tissue or
other parts of the body.
• Brain tumors may be related to:
– Exposure to certain materials or chemicals
– Heredity
– Certain viruses
 Health and Homeostasis
• Uncontrolled blood glucose levels
may cause changes in the brain and
behavior.
– This can especially affect diabetics.
• Unlike other cells in the body, brain
cells cannot switch to other fuel types
(fat, amino acids) when blood glucose
levels runs low.