Physical Chemistry

• Instructor Information
• Prof. Evans Adei
• e-mail: eadei@yahoo.com
• Office: Basement of Dean’s Office (Chemistry Complex)
• Office Hours: Monday 12:30 am – 1:30 pm and by appointment
• Teaching Assistant: Isaac Ofori
• Reference Textbooks
• Atkins, P. W. The Elements of Physical Chemistry (at least 2 nd Edn.)
• Atkins, P. W. Physical Chemistry(at least 5 th Edn.)
• Moore, W. J. Physical Chemistry(at least 4 th Edn.)
• Laidler, K. J. & Meiser J. H. Physical Chemistry (at least 2 nd Edn.)
• cccAlberty R A & Silbey, R. J Physical Chemistry (at least 2 nd Edn.)
• Steinfeld J I., Francisco J. S. & Hase W. L. Chemical Kinetics & Dynamics (at least 1 st
Edn.)
• Castellan G. W. Physical Chemistry 3 rd Edn.
 CHEM 155: BASIC PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY I
• Paradigm Shift in our conception
• Physical Chemistry and its Problems of Primary Concern
• Structure of Science and its Classification
• Theory Development: Concepts, Construct, Relationship,
Proposition, Laws, Hypothesis and Models.
• States of Matter I: Classification, Structure and Properties of
Matter, System & State Variables and Equation of State
• Thermodynamics I: First Law, Heat capacity, Enthalpy and
thermochemistry.
• Chemical Kinetics I: Elementary Chemical Kinetics, Basic
Laws, Effects of Temperature and the Arrhenius equation.
 Course Objectives

 To provide the student with understanding of the principles, laws, and theories of
physical chemistry and science.
 Increase student ability to be constructively critical of scientific and cultural traditions
around him/her by sizing up views and opinions and bringing the powers of his/her
own scientific reasoning to bear upon the situation in order to preserve what is
valuable for the future.
 Lead the mind of the student out into the open, to give it the best chance to be its best
self
 Awaken curiosity, humility and integrity in student and pursuit toward understanding
his/her own place in the world and acting upon it.
 Transmit Perceived wisdom and develop student skills to constructively and critically
question and assess what we know and what we think we know.
 Guide and direct, explain and clarify, but facility in solving problems in the
classroom/exams and laboratory depends largely on the students familiarity of theory,
recall of facts, ability to integrate knowledge and willingness to devote sufficient time
and effort to the task.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Course Objectives
 Learning is very hard sometimes, because it requires
relentlessly pushing past your frustration, struggle,
setbacks and failures – Deliberate hard work of
practice, practice are more important than aptitude.
 I do not teach to make students happy or satisfied
 I will be happy if they are so, but my job is to teach
them and help them learn that we have remarkable
capacity to influence our own outcome.
 Inculcating in students what Science teaches:
Thinking beyond our ethnicity, tribal affiliations and
ideologies Evans
to improve human
Adei Dept of Chemistry condition
KNUST Kumasi everywhere.
 Physical Chemistry
 Establishes and develops the theoretical principles,
used to elucidate or clarify and interpret the
observations made in the investigation of the
composition, properties, and transformation of
matter
 Clarification through a study of the physical
properties of the reacting substances and of the
effect of physical changes on the reactions
themselves.

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Problems of Primary Concern to P Chemists

Domains of
 Thermodynamics

 question of the position of chemical equilibrium

 Quantum mechanics and spectroscopy
 explore the structure and behaviour of individual atoms and molecules
 Chemical Kinetics and Chemical Dynamics
 Statistical thermodynamics.

Overlap
 Electrochemistry

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

The Real Task
 The best thing a human being can do is to help another human
being learn and understand more.
 To accept the truth about what we are, and also the truth about
other human beings, demands courage.
 Who you are is what you think you are and what you think you
are not
 To turn towards God means, first, turning away from whatever is
untrue or mistaken belief (delusion) – no matter how much
comfort it brings. -Michael Casey
 It isn’t that they can’t see the solution. It is that they can’t see the
problem. - Gilbert
Chesterton.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Making Sense of Our Universe
 The Earth is known to be a planet moving round the Sun;
the Sun itself is an ordinary star; and our own particular
star system or galaxy (flattened system) contains several
hundred billion stars of the same kind as ours.
 Our sun large enough to fit 1.3 million earths
 Hubble reveals an estimated 100 billion galaxies exist and
the size of the whole universe is not known - it may be
infinite
 Concept of light years: one light-year is equal to 9,59.4607
× 1012 km. Light from the Sun can reach us in 8.3 min and
distance fromEvans
theAdei
Moon is only
Dept of Chemistry 1.5Kumasi
KNUST light years
Revelations, Facts and Faith
 Belief: Starts as an idea, becomes opinion, perspective or
world view which then matures into BELIEF
 Conviction: Firm belief or emotionally driven belief
 Beliefs founded on truth, grace and mercy, will prevail in
the end
 Religion: Belief in supernatural power which governs
universe
 Truth: Conformity to fact or reality; undisputed fact
 Faith: Belief esp. in a revealed religion; loyalty
 Revelation: God’s disclosure of himself to man
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Making Sense of our World
 Every human being has a belief system that is
utilized, and it is through this mechanism that we
individually, "make sense" of the world around us.
 There are two forms such belief systems can take;
evidence-based (science) or faith-based (religion).
 Science is used to build an evidence-based belief
system, under the premise that the world is
ultimately understandable through observation,
experiment, and prediction.

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

 Taking Dominion Over the Earth
 To take dominion over the earth man should among others be
able to predict events and prepare for them.
 The observations and recordings of the natural world by man,
since ancient times, is a matter of historical fact. The times and
routes of migrating animals, birds and fish were of crucial
importance to people who live by hunting, while a knowledge of
the seasons, of rainfall etc. is essential to food gatherers.
 The importance of these and other natural phenomena made
those with extensive knowledge of them the leaders of their
communities and exceptional status was also accorded to those
who had, or were believed to have, the ability to predict such
events.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Fascination with Prediction of the Future

 Historically, prediction has been attempted either through an appeal

to the supernatural or by means of a reasoned extrapolation of facts
already known. These two approaches to the same problem are not as
different as they might appear.
 If an observed fact, the annual flooding of a river for example, is
believed to be under the direct and immediate control of the gods,
then it is quite rational to consult those gods about such events. Nor
does the involvement of the supernatural necessarily conflict with the
making and recording of observations.
 Thus, the ancient fascination with the prediction of the future led not
only to the use of rite and ritual but also to the recording and ordering
of observations, a tendency which also received support from the
widespread belief that there must be a system or order in the universe.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Faith, Hope and Expectation
 In science, faith is belief in the absence of evidence, not
belief in spite of the evidence.
 Hebrews 11:1 defines faith as "the substance of things
hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.“
 Hope does not disappoint but expectation does.
 In contrast to the detailed Apostolic and Nicene Creeds
of Christianity, the first Pillar of Islam contains only
two points, the belief in the existence of God and the
belief in Mohammed's prophetic office
 Faith-based belief systems are invariably solely subject
to interpretation. Opinions are never resolved except
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
by consensus
What is a Religion?
An entity that answers the following four questions is called a religion
 “Who am I and What is my place in the world?”

 “How can I live the right way?”

 “How can I pray?”

 “What happen to me after I die?”

 Each religion seeks an ideal framework for man’s life and lays down practices
aimed at achieving this ideal
The core of what and who you are starts with whether you truly believe in one of
the following:
 A supreme being

 Just an existence beyond the physical of some kind

 Nothing at all

 Scientists who profess to a religious belief keep their science and their religion in
two separate boxes
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 What is my place in the world?
What are we supposed to do with our lives here on planet earth?
 Science and religion in their own unique ways teach us how we

can be saved from suffering through stories they tell us about

the world and the wise people who lived in it before us.
 Being saved is what finding our place in the world really all is

about. Saved from what?

 Ignorance - Not knowing the right thing to do, Sin - Doing the

wrong thing and consequently,

 Suffering: being miserable all the time.

 We must remind ourselves not only of what to do and how to

do it, but why we must do what we do – constructively critical

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
How can I live the right way?
Teachings Thru’ Gospel, al-Quran, dharma, etc

 Part of living the right way is learning what to do if you don’t

and how to pick ourselves up when we make mistakes….
 There has always been a vital and murderous struggle over
necessities and resources (food, air, living space, energy, power,
money, sex etc.).
 Religion is not about emotional experience, it was the first way
that people learned self-discipline, and how to live with one
another in love (graciously and mercifully - beyond fairness and
reasonability) because the masters have taught that love never
dies.
 Living the right way changes the world just as much as it
changes us and protects the world just like the way it protects us.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Prayer

 Turn our emotions/inside feelings, searching and

findings, into just the right words
 Help us keep up our hope that what we need will
come to us soon, and that what we really need we
already have
 Cleans our minds and get us to think about deep
things and important things

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Significance of Religion
Religion illuminates our mind as to
 Who we are

 Why we are here

 What we should be doing and not doing

 How we might find a life that is profound, fulfilling

and finally real

 Where we go from death

 Your belief system is the actual set of precepts from

which you live your daily life, those which govern
your thoughts, word, and actions
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 The Task of Philosophy
 Human perspective is limited; we see the world from where we
stand, and partial vision yields only partial truth.
 Philosophical thought usually begins when the world does not
behave as we thought it must
 In frustration, the wise person takes stock. “Know thyself” is the
first injunction of philosophy, for until we appreciate the extent
to which self colours experience with its own loyalties, infuses it
with its inarticulate commitments, we cannot enjoy the flexibility
of action and purpose that is the mark of true freedom
 The task of philosophy is to examine life, to tear down the
comfortable barriers of dogma which prevent is from growth
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
The Task of Philosophy
 Philosophy it seems is speculation about matters that can
have no final answer. The broad areas include:
 Epistemology – theory of knowledge; questions are
central. What is the scientific method
 Metaphysics – Nature of being and the world. The
description of the fundamental aspects of reality. What is
mind? Does God exist? Are numbers real?
 Value Theory – Resolving a problems about the nature of
value in art, ethics, and politics. What makes something
beautiful? Is it taste or objective. Should I always obey
the Law?
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 The Task of Philosophy
 Philosophy is the human mind become conscious of itself and its contribution to
what is known
 To desire wisdom is to seek principles that cut through the superficial and trivial
facts that clutter our intellectual landscape, revealing the basic shape of things
beneath
 Philosophical thought is the mind straining to understand itself and its place in the
scheme of things
 Philosophy as a quest for wisdom is an attempt to provide a vision of the world
that is systematic and clear in which the connections between significant facts are
made manifest
 What is true in our outlook will enlarge our understanding of the world and open
it up to our command, while what is false will lead us to confusion and frustration.
 Philosophical reflection is not the whole end of living, but an essential part of
happiness - part of self-fulfilment. Happiness is growth
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Living An Authentic Life
 Human being is a being unto death and you can only live
an authentic life if you recognize and acknowledge the
fact that you will die – M. Heidegger
 It is inevitable that in living an authentic life you will
have to make some difficult decisions for which a frame
of reference is imperative
 The frames include:
 Philosophy
 Religion
 Logic
 History
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Rules of the Game
 If enough individuals agree, then a particular tenet of
belief may be solidified, but it is never truly subject to
challenge because there is never any expectation of
evidence to consider.
 Science only requires that the world be explainable
according to the "rules" that have been discovered
regarding its behaviour.
 Therefore, any postulate that suggests something that
operates outside those rules is uniformly rejected as
being unscientific.
 Not all beliefs are subject to verification and that is
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
where these two forms of belief often collide.
Speculative Nature of Modern Physics

 Chief among them are the proponents of string theory and the
multiverse hypothesis —
 appear convinced of their ideas on the grounds that they are
beautiful or logically compelling, despite the impossibility of
testing them.
 A dangerous departure from the scientific method.
 Many of today’s theorists —Ellis and Silk accused these
theorists of “moving the goalposts” of science and blurring the
line between physics and pseudoscience.
 The ability to disprove a theory by means of scientific
experiment has always been part of the accepted scientific
method.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 What Do You See?
 What is not named in a culture very likely goes unnoticed by the
majority of its people. The converse is also true; people pay greater
attention to things that have been given names – DS Slawson
 Giving names to things is a way of knowing them and of seeing
them as well. Knowledge deals importantly in names, naming
requires the sort of vision that discerns that these two objects are of
the same kind and those other two are not - Allen Lacey
 The eye sees only what the mind is prepared to comprehend – HS
Bergson.
 What we see depends mainly on what we look for
– J Lubbock
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Is there a “Sure Thing”?

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

 What Do You See?
 Our senses are amazing, but our brain's interpretation of
the sense data is vulnerable.
 Recognizing and acknowledging that, we often do not see
what is right in front of our eyes makes us more tolerant.
 ‘Seeing’ is taken from the word ‘see’ which dictionaries
describe as to perceive something.
 Perception is the process of recognition or relating what the
eyes see with previous knowledge.
 Understanding allows us to see with our brains what the
human eye cannot see
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Perception and Attitude
 We can always choose to perceive things differently.
 You can focus on what's wrong in your life, or you can focus on
what's right.
 Whether your dream is realistic or not is purely a perception and
not based on external fact
 Many of us think that our power is a tool or a weapon, but in fact,
power is a state of being; the way you see and make choices.
 Do not mistaken hope or wishful thinking for knowledge
 Changing your mind is the most powerful step you can take
towards altering your world
 No event, within itself, has the power to determine how we feel
or our reactions.Evans
How fortunate that this is so!!!
Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Tacit Knowledge
 The kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person by
means of writing it down.
 When we acquire a skill we acquire a corresponding understanding that
defies articulation
 Some examples of daily activities and tacit knowledge are: riding a
bike, playing the piano, driving a car, and hitting a nail with a hammer.
 Facial recognition: ‘‘We know a person’s face, and can recognize it
among a thousand, indeed a million. Yet we usually cannot tell how we
recognize a face we know, so most of this cannot be put into words.’’
 Tacit knowledge is not easily shared. It consists of beliefs, ideals,
values, schemata (mental codification of experience) and mental models
which are deeply ingrained in us and which we often take for granted.
 While difficult to articulate, this cognitive dimension of tacit knowledge
shapes the way we perceive
Evans the
Adei Dept of world.
Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Tacit Knowledge
 Apprentices, for example, work with their mentors and learn
craftsmanship not through language but by observation, imitation,
and practice.
 Tacit knowledge has been described as “know-how” – as opposed
to “know-what” (facts), “know-why” (science), or “know-who”
(networking).
 It involves learning and skill but not in a way that can be written
down.
 knowing-how or embodied knowledge is characteristic of the
expert, who acts, makes judgments, and so forth without explicitly
reflecting on the principles or rules involved.
 The expert works without having a theory of his or her work; he or
she just performs skilfully without deliberation or focused
attention. Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Tacit Knowledge

 Although it is possible to distinguish conceptually

between explicit and tacit knowledge, they are not
separate and discrete in practice.
 The interaction between these two modes of knowing is
vital for the creation of new knowledge.
 The process of transforming tacit knowledge into
explicit or specifiable knowledge is known as
codification, articulation, or specification.
 The tacit aspects of knowledge are those that cannot be
codified, but can only be transmitted via training or
gained through personal experience.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Tacit Knowledge
 According to Parsaye, there are three major
approaches to the capture of tacit knowledge from
groups and individuals. They are:
 Interviewing experts.
 Learning by being told.
 Learning by observation.

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Einstein 1916 Obituary for Ernst Mach

 “Concepts which have proved useful for ordering things easily assume
so great an authority over us, that we forget their terrestrial origin and
accept them as unalterable facts. They then become labelled as
‘conceptual necessities’ ‘a prior situations’ etc.
 The road of scientific progress is frequently blocked for long periods by
such errors. It is therefore not just an idle game to exercise our ability to
analyse familiar concepts, and to demonstrate the conditions on which
that justification and usefulness depend, and the way in which these
developed, little by little, from the data of experience. In this way they
are deprived of the excessive authority.
 Concepts which cannot be shown valid are removed. Those which had
not been coordinated with the accepted order of things with sufficient
care are corrected or they are replaced by new conceptions when a new
system is produced which, for some reason or other, seems preferable.”.
 Questioning our Assumptions for Progress
Evans Adei CHEM 255
Paradigm Shift in Conception of Nature

Paradigm:
 Guiding intellectual framework/model of how the

world works.
 a set of tacit (knowledge difficult to transfer to

another by writing) and explicit "rules of the game"

 Set of ideas that defines what is and what is not shared

experience to the scientists

 A Road map that the scientist uses to make sense out

of Nature.
 Paradigm creators are rare and vast bulk of scientists

makes it richer in particulars.

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Traditional View of Scientific Change
old worldview + new data = new, improved worldview

 process is linear
 each improvement brings scientific understanding closer to The Truth

View of Scientific Change Introduced by Thomas Kuhn in

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
old worldview is replaced by new, different worldview

 process is cyclical (revolutionary)

 with each shift in paradigm, scientific understanding moves no closer to The
Truth, but rather away from Ignorance

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

The Structure of Scientific
Revolution

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Paradigm Shift in Conception of Nature

 Aristotle 350 BC Everything was made up of earth, air, fire,

and water.
 Although not based on fact it survived for over 2000 years,

 1624 the Parliament of Paris passed a law compelling all

chemists of the Sorbonne to conform to the teaching of

Aristotle’s idea, on pain of death and confiscation of goods.
 Chemistry dates back from the time men no longer believed in

things just because they were customary or a famous man had

said so.
Coincided
 American Revolution (1775 – 83) & French Revolution (1789 – 99)
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
New Scientific Conception of Nature
 The shift from one paradigm to another is more than a
religious conversion but an exercise of reason
 God’s creation though nature might be it obeyed simple
and universal laws that man can know and express in
the precise language of mathematics.
 Unlock natures secret through experimentation and
quantitative study of physical quantities
 Everything is made up of atoms etc.
 Consequences of these beliefs, radio and atomic energy
which could not possibly have been guessed at
otherwise - realization of man’s finest powers of reason
and constructive ability.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Power over Nature through
Science
 In the scientific world it is not by prayer and humility
that you cause things to go as you wish.
 It is by acquiring a knowledge of natural laws.
 We are told that faith could remove mountains but no
one believed it.
 We are told that atomic bomb can remove mountains and
everyone believes it because science insists on
observation.
 Science has had two functions to enable us to know
things and to do things
 However, Science does not settle where man will spend
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
eternity.
Dissent show Progress of
Character
 The world would never break new grounds if children did
not doubt, question, disrupt all absolutes of their elders.
 Science insists upon ascertaining matters of fact by
observation, not by consulting ancient authorities.
 Most of us still believe many things that in fact have no
basis except in the assertions of the ancients.
 When we become emotionally invested in our belief
systems, facts to the contrary are rendered invisible.
 Convictions are more dangerous than lies – F. Netzsche
 Respect for observation – which science insists upon- as
opposed to tradition is difficult and contrary to human
nature. Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Respect the Thinking above the Thought

 The society of scientists is kept alive and grow only by a

constant tension between dissent and respect, between
independence from the views of others and tolerance for them.
 Human search and research is a learning by steps of which
none is final, and the mistakes of one generation are rungs in
the ladder, no less than their correction by the next.
 Science by its nature, respects the scientist more than his
theories, the search above the discovery and the thinking
above the thought.
 The reverence for the authority of men who have been
esteemed great retards men from advancing in science.
 Intransigent belief constructs are mental barrier to further
knowledge and understanding.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 The Human Mind
 One of the oldest features of divine likeness is man’s
capacity to think, free will, self-consciousness, etc.,
 The human mind’s default mode of operation is
wondering, which might lead to creative insight
 However involuntary mind wondering could also
take us away from the important activities and tasks
at hand with consequence unhappy mind
 If you want to change your life, the only place you
can do it is in the present – Present is a gift

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

SCIENCE AND ITS STRUCTURE

 “The object of all science is to coordinate our

experiences and to bring them into a logical system” -
Albert Einstein
 systematic (logical) framework for gaining and

organizing knowledge that entails making observation,

formulating laws, hypotheses, theories, and performing
experiments
Common Feature of science:
 Accept ‘reality’ or everyday experience, express it

precisely through scrutiny and then explore the

implication of what has been found.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Undefined Terms

 A starting point is obtained by accepting certain terms as being undefined.

 These terms are described but are not defined in the manner of other terms in

the system.
 Term ← Simpler term ← Simpler term ….

Postulate
 admittedly unproven assumption adopted as basis of inferences or for the

sake of argument - Not based upon any model for the structure of matter e.g.
definition of temperature. Assumed statement that applies to the particular
area of study, evolves in the process of reconciling theory and expt, and may
be viewed as non-intuitive
Axiom
 refers to assumed statements that are applicable to the entire field of study.

Any branch of science has a list of axioms on which the entire construction is
built
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Reality and axioms
 Electrons and nuclei interact according to the Coulomb law, and
classical mechanics and electrodynamics predict that any atom or
molecule is bound to collapse in a matter of a femtosecond
emitting an infinite amount of energy.
 Hence, according to the classical laws, the complex matter we
see around us (also our bodies) should simply not exist at all.
 However, atoms and molecules do exist, and their existence may
be described in detail by quantum mechanics using what is
known as the wave function.
 The axioms of quantum mechanics provide the rules for the
derivation of this function and for the calculation of all the
observable properties of atoms and molecules.
Reality and axioms
 Any branch of science has a list of axioms, on which the entire
construction is built.
 For quantum mechanics, six such axioms (postulates) have been
established. The postulates have evolved in the process of reconciling
theory and experiment, and may sometimes be viewed as non-
intuitive.
 These axioms stand behind any tool of quantum mechanics used in
practical applications.
 They also lead to some striking conclusions concerning the reality of
our world, for example, the possibilities of bilocation, teleportation,
and so on.
 These unexpected conclusions have recently been experimentally
confirmed.
Chemistry

 Chemistry is the sciences that deals with, or investigate the

compositions, properties and transformations of substances, and
various elementary forms of matter.
 Chemistry began as experimental science. Substances were named
and studied without reference to their molecular structure.
 Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743 – 1794), father of modern
chemistry established the law of conservation of mass in chemical
reactions
 Joseph Proust (1754 - 1826) established the law of definite
proportion in order to explain these laws, and
 John Dalton (1766 – 1844) atomic theory in 1803 with which
chemistry evolved into a molecular science, with properties of
substances tied to their molecular structure.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Pervasive Nature Mathematics Science

 Mathematics is a form of communication tool of

science, just as language is, and the “language”
of mathematics is a common feature, common to
all divisions of physical chemistry.
 Precise Definition
 The Possibility of Mathematical Deduction
 Estimation of Probable Errors

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

 Pure /Basic Science
(curiosity-driven research)
Physics, Chemistry, Biology, etc.
Purpose

Applied Science
(Application of curiosity-driven resarch)
Engineering, Medicine, Pharmacy, Architecture, etc

Science
Classification Physical
(Non-living matter)
*Mathematics: Physics, Chemsitry, Engineering, Meteorology
Communication
tool of Science
Natural
Science

Biological
Subject (Living Matter) Medicine, Zoology, Forestry,
Matter

Social Behavioural
Science
Science
e.g. Psychology
Economics, Sociology
Political Science
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
What is Research
 Research is a multiple, systematic strategies to
generate knowledge about human behaviour,
human experience, human environments in which
the thought and action process of the scientist are
clearly specified so that they are logical,
understandable, conformable and useful.
 We rely on shared knowledge to maximize our
understanding of our universe in order to facilitate
improvement of our human condition or add to
knowledge.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Use of Theory Among Research Traditions

 Abstraction depicts symbolic representation of

shared experience in theory development.
 Abstraction is built on consensus of what we obtain
through our senses is referred to as shared
experience.
 All words are merely symbols used to describe
shared experience.
 Levels of abstraction: concepts, constructs,
relationships and prepositions (principles).
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Use of Theory Among Research Traditions

Concept
 Symbolic representation of an observable

 Helps us communicate our experiences and ideas to one another. Without

them we would not have language.

Construct,
 composed of a set of concepts that can be observed or submitted to

measurement.
 does not have an observable

Relationship
 an association of two or more constructs or concepts.

Proposition or Principle
 statement that governs a set of relationships and gives them a structure.

Based on a model
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Conception of Nature
 The challenge of finding the order, and of demonstrating that one has found it by
predicting the results of observations yet to be made, is the driving force of science
and necessitates not only the collection of data but also the arrangement of that data
within some conceptual framework that makes it easier to remember, understand and
use.
 Two broad categories of such conceptual frameworks, or models can be
distinguished. The first comprises models of an essentially descriptive nature in
which the phenomenon in question is likened to objects of our everyday experience.
 The molecular models used by modern chemists fall into this category; atoms are
represented by coloured spheres and bonds by metal rods. Lewis electron dot models
is another example.
 Thus we try to understand what is around us by constructing in our minds pictures
representing a "reality", which we call models. Models rely on our perception of
reality emanating from our experience, and on the other hand, on our ability to
abstract by creating ideal beings.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Mathematical Models
 The second category of model is the mathematical model in which
natural phenomena are represented by a set of symbols, the
meanings of which have been defined, and which obey some
particular rules of mathematical manipulation.
 A differential equation, for example, may be used to model a
chemical reaction by providing a description of the rates of change
with time of the concentrations of the reagents involved in the
reaction.
 It is this kind of model to which we refer when we speak of the
theoretical structure of the natural sciences. It is the type of model
which is most useful to us when we are comparing numerical
experimental data with theoretical predictions, i.e. in quantitative
work.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Theoretical Structure as a Framework

 A theoretical structure is essential to all the natural sciences. It

provides the framework into which the pieces of the jigsaw of
experimental data are fitted, thus revealing their inter-relationships
and exposing gaps in our knowledge which need to be filled with
the results of new experiments.
 In filling these gaps theory plays a leading role; it not only shows
where new measurements are required but also tells the
experimentalist what to expect when the experiments in question
are performed.
 This is very important since, clearly, the apparatus must be
designed so that it is capable of measuring the phenomena to be
studied and the quantities used must be appropriate to the
equipment.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
The Interplay of Theory and Expt
 But theory is always a suggestion or hypothesis, the
correctness, or otherwise, of which can only be tested against
experimental fact. Therefore, theory must always be
subordinate to experiment.
 If, after thorough checking for errors, the results of an
experiment are found to differ from those predicted by
theoretical calculations, then the theory must be amended, or
perhaps even discarded.
 Thus, although the theoretical framework of science is an
essential aspect which guides our progress towards a deeper
understanding, we must always recognise that a current theory
may one day prove to be inadequate and require replacement.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
MODELS

 Construct of the human mind that provides a

framework for discussion.
 It represents a simplified version of the system it
seeks to describe and incorporate only the most
important features of the real entity it represents.
 One must be careful to recognize the simplified
features, the justification for introducing them and
the limitations they impose.
 Permits the prediction of new facts as well as the
explanation of known observations
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Modelling
 Modelling is activity of the imagination which
provides us with alternative ways to recreate reality
and subject the system which have been imposed
on it.
 We use models in thinking about the world because
they are consistent with many observations, but no
serious scientists would take these models as reality
itself; each model is best a simplified
representation of reality.

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Scientific Investigation
 Experiment: is a well-defined controlled procedure for obtaining information
about a system under study.
 Fact: is a valid observation or experience (reproducible piece of information)

about some natural phenomenon.

Scientific Law (Rule)
 Summary of experience about a natural phenomenon or repeating patterns that

often emerge among the collected facts from experiment –

 phenomenological relationship i.e., involve relationships between variables that

are themselves experimentally defined. verbal statement or as a mathematical

equation. Examples laws of Thermodynamics and QM
 Theories or hypothesis draw on some postulated model or set of assumptions and

may not be and in fact usually are not entirely correct. Phenomenological
relationships (laws), however, merely reflect some aspect of the behaviour of
nature, and must therefore be correct (within the limits of the experimental error
of the measurements).
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Hypothesis & Theory
Hypothesis
 The whys in reproducible observations lead to hypothesis. It is essentially
a guess at an explanation in terms of more fundamental concepts – a
tentative explanation of observations. It is the first point in accounting for
a law.
Theory
 hypothesis established as a result of the success of further experiments it
has inspired or by a more elaborate formulation (often in terms of
mathematics) that puts it into the context of broader aspect of science
 an integrated body of concepts which successfully correlates the behaviour
of a material system with an imagined system or model whose behaviour
is considered to be understood
 An integrated set of concepts/principles about a phenomenon, the
purpose of which is to explain or predict the phenomenon.
 “...theory helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree.”
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Neuman
 Theory
 The dividing line between a hypothesis and a theory is arbitrary
and cannot be precisely defined.
 There is no set number of supporting experiments that must be
performed in order to give theory status to a hypothesis.
 “The word theory as a scientist means: a set of ideas so well
established by observations and physical models that it is
essentially indistinguishable from fact. That is different from the
colloquial use that means "guess." To a scientist, you can bet
your life on a theory. Remember, gravity is "just a theory" too.”
 Philip Plait, Death from the Skies!:These Are the Ways the World Will
End….
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Scientific Investigation
 The consequence of scientific investigation is an
informed judgement.
 Modern methods of investigation involve theories,
instrumentation and computer programs that treat
phenomena at a level of detail inaccessible to direct
personal observation.
 Scientific knowledge is a body of statements of
varying degrees of certainty; some most unsure,
some nearly sure but none absolutely certain.
Richard Feyman
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Scientific Theory
 A scientific theory can never be proved but it can be disproved
 The role of an experiment is therefore to subject scientific

theory to a critical test.

Theories serve two important purposes:
 They allow scientists to predict what will happen in

experiments that have not yet been run.

 They simplify the real problem of being able to remember all

the scientific facts that have already been discovered.

Theories, imperfect as they may be are simply the best idea
anyone has found so far to describe, explain and predict what
happens in the world in which we live.
The ability to predict the future successfully provides humans
with the meansEvans
to Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
survive.
The naturalistic approach

Find Patterns, Formulate/ Perform Modify or

Collect Facts Trends in Construct or expt. To test reject
about observ. Facts and modify theory theory
and expts. Summarize as hypothesis
Laws through expts.

Structure of Experimental-Type Inquiry

Observations
Observations
Concept
Data
Hypothesis Concept
Hypothesis Definition collection
Theory Definition

Findings

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

 Reasoning: based on the
rules of logic, process of
thinking or drawing
conclusion.

Intuition: A feeling that

How Scientific Conclusion Arrived at
Communicated By
something is wrong and
should be checked or for
just knowing that an idea
is right. Responsible for
new ideas

Emotions: An effective state

of consciousness in which
joy, sorrow, fear, hate or the
like is experienced.
Emotional appeal combines
with factual information and
argument to give effective
message.

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

The growth evolution
 Rules are handed down by an unquestionable (all-
powerful and all-knowing) higher authority-Rules are rules
one becomes part of the system by accepting and obeying
them; “good”= docile and obedient
 ‘Irresponsible’ and/or revolutionary phase; question divine
right or absolute power of authorities- demand explanation
for actions
 We have the power to question, make and change rules;
rules we invent should be fair, reasonable and ethical-
threshold of maturity; recognition that winning approval of
authorities not the highest value
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Believing What the Evidence Warrants
 A rational person only believes what the evidence warrants him
in believing; he does not merely accept things on faith; and
when the evidence falsifies his beliefs, he adjusts or abandons
them accordingly.
 An irrational or stupid person does not act in a rational manner;
he has access to all the information necessary to make an
appropriate judgment, to come up with a set of reasonable and
justified beliefs and yet fails to do so.
 Not only does he have no good reasons for thinking that what
they believe is true; he believes what he wants to believe. He
makes choices on the basis of prejudice, hearsay and emotions
like hope, fear, love, envy, pride and anger — instead of reason.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Present Is a Gift
 Pay attention to details and nomenclature surrounding a
particular subject under consideration
 Learning to pay attention is one of the most important
things that should be taught.
 It is more important than everything we teach in the
University, except independence of thought and critical
thinking
 When you put values in the wrong things it leads to very
disillusioned life.
 “There is nothing as useless as doing efficiently what
should not be done at all” - Peter Drucker
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Critical Thinking
 The word critical comes from the Greek word Kritikos which means to
question, to make sense of, to be able to analyse..
 Thinking is the cognitive activity involved in making sense of the world
around us
 Critical thinking is therefore defined as thinking about and evaluating our
thoughts, feelings, and behaviour so that we can clarify and improve them.
 When you pay attention to your emotional responses to things, your brain
gets educated by your body and your body gets the advantages of your
brain in making quality decision that improves the quality of your life.
 Critical thinking is a process. As a process- something you do – you can
do it better.
 You can develop your critical thinking skills.
 Rules are for Children!!!

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Critical Thinking
 It is the intellectually disciplined process of activity
and skilfully conceptually, applying, analysing,
synthesizing, and/or evaluating information
gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or
communication, as a guide to belief and action.
 Our human brains are imperfect and prone to
irrationally, distortions, prejudices, and cognitive
biases

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

Some Useful Thoughts
 “The task is, not so much to see what no one has
yet seen; but to think what nobody has yet thought,
about that which everybody sees.” - E. Schrodinger
 “Anyone who conducts an argument by appealing
to authority is not using his intelligence but his
memory”- Da Vinci
 “What the caterpillar calls the end of world the rest
of the world calls butterfly

Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi

The growth evolution
 Holy scripture may well be the word of God, but it may
not be His final word not because God’s ability to
express Himself was limited but because people’s
capacity to understand Him was.
 Any authentic higher form of social grouping does not
want obedient people but people of integrity – live a life
consistently devoid of falsehood, selfishness and
vindictiveness.
 “Unquestioning obedience” is just another name for the
failure to act like an adult and take responsibility for
your own life.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
 Abdicating our Responsibility
 In times of some chaotic phases of life there is a part
of us (the child in us) that yearns for somebody to
confidently step in not to assist us but to take over and
do the hard work that the situation requires of us to
enable us grow.
 Giving in to these yearnings provides the opportunity
to feel protected and cared for however, it subtly takes
our inherent power and makes us perpetual children
through compliance and dependence on the rescuer.
 Sometimes you have to lose the roof to see the stars
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
Some Useful Thoughts
 “Everyone admires the bold; no one honours the
timid” – Robert Greene
 You cannot spend your life worrying about petty
feelings of others.
 When you choose the behaviour you choose your
consequence.
 The only real possession that ever matter is your
uncompromising willingness to develop competence
through repeated exposure study and practice which
you had from birth.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi
University of Chicago’s Freedom of Expression tenet

 ‘The cure for ideas we oppose lies through open

discussion rather than through inhibition’
 Free inquiry (without violating law) is indispensable
to good life. Universities exist for the sake of such
inquiry
 University education should not be intended to make
people comfortable, it is meant to make them think.
 University should therefore guarantee members of its
community the broadest latitude to speak, write,
listen, challenge, and learn.
Evans Adei Dept of Chemistry KNUST Kumasi