By Kumaran Thirugnanasambantham

MEANING OF RESEARCH
 Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also
define research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information
on a specific topic.
 In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
 Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known
to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a
technical sense.
 According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising
and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
MEANING OF RESEARCH
 It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
 The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a
theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic
method
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

 What makes people to undertake research?

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern
over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive vs. Analytical

Applied vs. Fundamental

Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Conceptual vs. Empirical

Descriptive vs. Analytical
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.
 The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most
ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data.
 The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.
Applied vs. Fundamental
 Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or
pure) research.
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation.
 Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
formulation of a theory.
 Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.
 Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to
make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research,
Applied vs. Fundamental

 Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social

or business problem is an example of applied research.
 Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative

 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is

applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative
research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon.
 The qualitative phenomenon relating to or involving quality or kind. For
instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human
behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of
‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.
 Techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion
tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or
opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
 Conceptual vs. Empirical
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
 On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory
 Empirical is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment.
 We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is
necessary to get at facts first-hand, at their source, and actively to go about doing
certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
 Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical
studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis
 Research Approaches
 The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are
two basic approaches to research

Quantitative Approach

Qualitative Approach

Quantitative Approach
 Infertial
 Experimental
 Simualation
Infertial Approach
 The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to
infer characteristics or relationships of population
 This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that
the population has the same characteristics

Experimental Approach
 Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect
on other variables.
Simulation approach
 Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated.
 This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-
system) under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of
business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a
numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process.
 Given the values of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a
simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the process over time.”5
Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding
future conditions.
Qualitative approach
 Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment
of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
 Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
 Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative
form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis.
 Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques
and depth interviews are used. All these are explained at length in
chapters that follow
Significance of Research
 “All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it
leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention”
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organisation
 The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system
 Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has
three distinct phases of operation,
 (i) investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
 (ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces
underlying them; and
 (iii) the prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments.
Significance of Research
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry
 Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are
considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business
decisions.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems
 the significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following
points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) (b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
(c) (c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
(d) (d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
(e) (e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories.
Research Methods Vs Methodology
 Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that
are used for conduction of research.
 Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in
performing research operations such as making observations, recording data,
techniques of processing data and the like. Research methods refer to the
behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing research
technique.
 Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
 It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them
Research Methods Vs Methodology
 Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
 For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the
importance of knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious
since the same constitute the tools of his trade.
 Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use
research results with reasonable confidence.
 When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of
acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world
and of judging every day experience.
 In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and
we can use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the
methods by which they have been obtained
 Research Process
 Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
 Research Process
 Research process consists of
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
Formulating the research problem:
 There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of
nature and those which relate to relationships between variables.
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own
colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter.
 In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is
usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Criteria of Good Research:
 The research should be clearly defined and common concepts
 Research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement
 Procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible
 Researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings
 Analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and
the methods of analysis used should be appropriate
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity
Qualities of a good research:
 Good research is systematic
 It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules.
 Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it
certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions
 Good research is logical
 This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the
logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
 Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction
is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from
that very premise.
 In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of
decision making
Qualities of a good research:
 Good research is empirical
 It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
 Good research is replicable
 This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study
and thereby building a sound basis for decisions
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India:
 The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research
 Many researchers take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most
of the work, which goes in the name of research is not methodologically sound.
 Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and
paste job without any insight shed on the collated materials.
 The consequence is obvious, viz., the research results, quite often, do not reflect the
reality or realities.
 Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity.
 There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on
one side and business establishments, government departments and research
institutions on the other side.
 Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the
material supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are
often reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers so the need for
generating the confidence that the information/data obtained from a business unit will
not be misused.
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India:
 Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for
want of adequate information There does not exist a code of conduct for
researchers
 Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely
secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes
unnecessary delays in the completion of research studies
 Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places.
 There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get
copies of old and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government
publications in time.
 There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from
various government and other agencies doing this job in our country
 There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also
problems relating to the process of data collection and related things
Defining the Problem
 In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and
properly defining a research problem.
 A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to
research.
 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
 There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation ) let us call it ‘I’ to
whom the problem can be attributed.
 There must be at least two courses of action say C 1 and C2 to be Pursued
 There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O 1 and O2 of the course of
action
 The course of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the
objective.
State the components of a Research Problem

 There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the

problem.
 There must be some objective to be attained
 There must be alternative means for obtaining the objective one wishes to
attain
 There must remain some doubt in mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives.
 There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.
Selecting the Problem

 The research Problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected.

 Nevertheless, every researcher must find out his own salvation for research
problem.
 Help may be taken from the research guide in this connection
 Following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting the
research problem.
 Subject or a problem which is overdone should not be normally chosen
 Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
 Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
Selecting the Problem

 It should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or

sources
 The selection of problem must be proceeded by a preliminary study.
 Criteria considered for a problem
 Importance
 Qualification or training
 Cost
 Time factor
Necessity of Defining the Problem

 What data are to be collected?

 What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
 What relations are to be explored?
 What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
If a researcher finding answers for the above questions
Then the problem is well planned and defined.
 What is a literature review?

 A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge

and understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in
context.
 A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is
why it is called a literature review rather than a literature report.
 It is a process of reviewing the literature, as well as a form of writing.
What is a literature review?

 To illustrate the difference between reporting and reviewing, think about

television or film review articles.
 These articles include content such as a brief synopsis or the key points of the
film or programme plus the critic’s own evaluation.
 Similarly the two main objectives of a literature review are
 Firstly the content covering existing research, theories and evidence,
 Secondly your own critical evaluation and discussion of this content.
 Usually a literature review forms a section or part of a
 Dissertation,
 Research project or long essay.
Literature review – top tips

 Vary search terms.

 Try experimenting with different search terms when using online search tools
(e.g. Discover Ed). Make use of search functions that allow you to specify a
date range e.g. the year you would like to begin from.
 Record everything.
 Always keep an accurate record of all of the sources that you use for your
bibliography/reference list.
 Use bibliographies.
 Make use of the bibliography in the journal articles or textbooks that you are
reading as this can help you to increase the breadth of your literature review.
Literature review – top tips
 Create a summary document.
 Use a reading summary sheet or electronic document to capture the key
information and the argument from your sources. Make space to add your
own evaluation of both of these.
 Build a structure.
 Create a logical structure for your literature review and the way you have
approached it. This structure could be chronological or thematic or another
form more suitable for your investigation.
 Use your voice.
 Make sure your research voice comes through clearly. Think about how
you have developed your views. What evidence convinced you? Indicate
your own stance.
Attributions and Citations
 Publication of scientific paper is critical for modern science evolution, and
professional advancement. However, it comes with many responsibilities.
An author must be aware of good publication practices.
 While refraining from scientific misconduct or research frauds, authors
should adhere to Good Publication Practices (GPP).
 Publications which draw conclusions from manipulated or fabricated data
could prove detrimental to society and health care research.
 Good science can blossom only when research is conducted and
documented with complete honesty and ethics.
Attributions and Citations
 Citations: Functions and Attributes
 When a bibliography of previously published patents or papers is placed in the
new works of a researcher, a connection is established between the new and
previous work.
 As per relevance to context, the researcher provides due credit through the use of
a citation. Citations help the readers to verify the quality and importance of
the new work and justification of the findings.
 Materials that can be cited include journal papers, conference proceeding,
books, theses, newspaper articles, websites, or other online resources and
personal communication
Attributions and Citations
 A researcher needs to cite each source twice:
(i) in-text citation, in the text of the article exactly where the source is quoted or
paraphrased
(ii) a second time in the references, typically at the end of the chapter or a book or
at the end of a research article.
 There are three main functions of citation
(i) Verification function: Authors have a scope for finding intentional or unintentional
distortion of research or misleading statements. Citation offers the readers a chance
to ascertain if the original source is justified or not, and if that assertion is properly
described in the present work
Attributions and Citations
(ii) Acknowledgment function: Researchers primarily receive credit for their work
through citations. Citations play crucial role in promotion of individual researchers and
their continued employment.
Many reputed organizations and institutes provide research funding based on the
reputations of the researchers. Citations help all researchers to enhance their
reputation and provide detailed background of the research work.
(iii) Documentation function: Citations are also used to document scientific
concepts and historical progress of any particular technology over the years
Attributions and Citations
 Certain cases when references do not ful-fill the actual goal of citations and
acknowledgments, and thus do not benefit the reader
 Spurious citations: In certain cases, when citation is not required or an appropriate
one is not found, if the author nevertheless goes ahead with including one anyways,
it would be considered as a spurious citation. These sorts of citations do not add any
value to the reader in terms of properly understanding the paper
 Biased citations: When authors cite the work of their friends or colleagues despite
there being no significant connection between the two works, or when they do not
cite work of genuine significance because they do not wish to give credit in the form
of citation to certain individuals, then such actions can be classified as biased
citations.
 Self-citations: There is nothing wrong in citing one’s prior work if the citation is really
relevant. Self-citation of prior papers is natural because the latest paper is often a
part of a larger research project which is ongoing. Sometimes, it is also
advantageous for the reader because citations of all the related works of the same
author are given in one paper and this may reduce the effort of the reader in trying to
find the full versions of those papers
Attributions and Citations
 Certain cases when references do not fulfil the actual goal of citations and
acknowledgments, and thus do not benefit the reader
 Coercive citations: Despite shortcomings, impact factors remain a primary method
of quantification of research, One side effect is that it creates an incentive for editors
to indulge in coercion to add citations to the editor’s journal. Even if not explicitly
stated, the implied message is that the author could either add citations or risk
rejection