Theoretical Grammar of

English
Lecture 5

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Questions?

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Today:
• The complex sentence
• Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses

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The complex sentence

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Recall seven basic sentence structures
• SV
• SVA
• SVO
• SVOO
• SVC
• SVOC
• SVOA

If a sentence element, with the exception of the verb, is itself a clause, we speak of a
complex sentence.

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Examples
• SVC
 Where she lives is unknown.
 That Marjorie should have left so early is most peculiar.
 To go there alone on a night like this would be most unwise of you.
 Speaking like this is common.

• SVA
 Jack was where one would always find him at this hour.

• SVO
 Rose knows how you did it.
 She fears lest Michael should have found out the truth.
 I see what you mean.
 Roger began reading the letter.
 Audrey continued to speak to the doctor.

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Examples
• SVOO
 We gave them what they wanted.
 Julia asked me how things were at the university.

• SVC
 Jack is what you might describe as a perfect scoundrel.
 It is not that I do not trust you.

• SVOC
 You may call me what you will.
 She saw Robert entering the shop.
 Maud would never have allowed this to happen.

• SVOA
 You should always put the books where they belong.

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Subordinate and superordinate clauses
• CS = George said that we should have a picnic if the weather was fine the
following week.
 C0 = George said
 C1 = We should have a picnic if the weather was fine the following week.
 C11 = We should have a picnic
 C12 = The weather was fine the following week.

• CS = C0 that [C11 if C12]

 C0 is the main clause (a.k.a. the matrix clause)
 C0 is superordinate to C1 C1 is subordinate to C0
 C11 is superordinate to C12 C12 is subordinate to C11

• The CS is an example of a complex sentence with two levels of subordination.

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Clauses as postmodifiers do not make a
sentence complex
on chemistry [1]
which you gave me yesterday [2]
That book lying on the sofa [3] is very interesting.
brought recently by George from the [4]
library
with the pages thumbed by numerous [5]
readers

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Finite, non-finite, and verbless clauses
• Finite clause: the verb is finite
It started to rain before we had reached the station.
Tell him that he may know the truth.

• Non-finite clause: the verb is non-finite

 Infinitive clause
She sat looking out of the window, the letter yet to be finished.
They arrived early in order to congratulate their grandparents.
 ing-participle clause
She sat looking out of the window, the letter not having been finished.
They arrived early wishing to be the first to congratulate their grandparents.
 ed-participle clause
She sat looking out of the window, the letter left unfinished in the typewriter.
They couldn’t help laughing, still excited by the film.

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Finite, non-finite, and verbless clauses
• Verbless clause: there’s no verb at all
She sat looking out of the window, Roger’s letter on the table in front of her.
I shall call you if and when necessary.
While at university, he made the acquaintance of many interesting people.

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause
• The future forms are not used in adverbial clauses of time [1], condition [2],
and concession [3], and also after see (to it) that, make sure that, take care that
[4]
 She will telephone you as soon as she comes. [1]
 I shall continue to visit you so long as it suits me. [2]
 Do not argue with him, whatever he says/may/might say. [3]
 The butler will see that your luggage is handled carefully. [4a]
 Make sure she comes in time. [4b]
 He will take care the windows are shut properly. [4c]

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause
• The future forms may appear in the adverbial clause of condition
 When will has a volitional meaning
If the door won’t open, put some oil on the hinges. [1]
I’ll decide for you if you’ll permit me. [2]
 When will expresses timeless or habitual prediction
If drugs will cure him, this drug should do the job. [3]
If he will sit for hours reading, he will like this chair. [4]
 When will expresses the present predictability of the occurrence or nonoccurrence of
the event
"...May we expect you here at six tomorrow?" "Not on any
account. I will see the whole establishment blown up with its own
dynamite before I will get up at five. My hours are healthy,
rational hours; eleven to five“. (B. Shaw, Major Barbara). [5]

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• Subjunctive I
• Subjunctive II
• The Conditional Mood
• The Suppositional Mood

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• Subjunctive I
 The base form of the verb for all persons and numbers

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• Subjunctive I is used
in subordinate clauses after expressions of necessity, demand, etc.
 It is highly desirable that she come at once.
 George requested that everyone be present at the meeting.
in certain set phrases
 Be ours a happy meeting!
 If need be, we shall draft a proposal.
 Long live the King!

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• Subjunctive II
Present Past
were had been
wrote had written
were writing had been writing

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• Subjunctive II is used
in subordinate clauses of condition
 If Robert were here, he would explain everything.
 Had you told me before, I shouldn’t have come.
in subordinate clauses after wish, would rather, it is time
 She wished she knew the answer.
 He will wish he hadn’t been so harsh.
 I would rather you didn’t do it.
 I’m sure Marjorie would rather you hadn’t come.
 It’s time Robert were married.
in the pattern If only
 If only Audrey were here now!
 If only we hadn’t left five minutes early.
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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• The Conditional Mood
Present Past
should/would write should/would have written
should/would be writing should/would have been writing

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• The Conditional Mood is used
in the main clause of a complex sentence with a subordinate clause of condition
 If Robert were here, he would explain everything.
 Had you told me before, I shouldn’t have come.
in simple sentences
 It’s a pity George didn’t come. There would have been more fun.
 I should have told her to mind her own business.
in certain set expressions such as should think, should imagine, shouldn’t wonder
to express vagueness
 “I should think you’d have more pride than to try to look like Mrs.
Merriwether,” he taunted.
 Irene was in front; that young fellow – what had they nicknamed him – ‘The
Buccaneer?’ – looked precious hangdog there behind her; had got a flea in his
ear, he shouldn't wonder.
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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• The Suppositional Mood
Present Past
should write should have written
should be writing should have been writing

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• The Suppositional Mood is used
in subordinate clauses of condition and time to express what might happen or
have happened
 Suppose it should not be done enough! Suppose it should break in turning
out! Suppose somebody should have got over the wall of the back-yard, and
stolen it, while they were merry with the goose – a supposition at which the
two young Cratchits became livid! All sorts of horrors were supposed.
 Gerald bought his first field hands and came to Tara to live in bachelor
solitude in the four-room overseer’s house, till such a time as the white walls
of Tara should rise.

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• The Suppositional Mood is used
to express surprise, bewilderment, annoyance, necessity, requirement, etc.
 Why he should have captivated Scarlett when his mind was a stranger to hers
she did not know.
 By this time, Gerald was thoroughly tired of the conversation and thoroughly
annoyed that the problem should be upon his shoulders. He felt aggrieved,
moreover, that Scarlett should still look desolate after being offered the best
of the County boys and Tara, too.
 She had been reared in the tradition of great ladies, which had taught her how
to carry her burden and still retain her charm, and she intended that her three
daughters should be great ladies also.
 There had been no talk of politics or impending war all during the morning,
because of Mr. Wilkes’ request that the ladies should not be bored.

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The verb phrase in the subordinate clause: the
oblique moods (following Smirnitsky)
• The Suppositional Mood ~ the French subjunctive
Cases which give rise to the French subjunctive

‘The subordinate clause is dependent on constructions which express a

significant degree of personal interpretation of events: these interpretations
present events as more unlikely than probable, and/or in a way which is
coloured by the desires or feelings of the subject, and/or conditional,
hypothetical or unknowable’

Roger Hawkins, Richard Towell, French Grammar and Usage

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Probably, the best book to
study the oblique moods
(and the modal verbs)

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Syntactic and semantic functions of
subordinate clauses

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Syntactic functions of subordinate clauses
As an element of a sentence
• Subject
That she never telephoned to me then is rather surprising.
• Direct object
Tell me where he lives.
• Indirect object
Please ask whoever that is that I shall be out directly.
• Subject complement
It is what I expected.
• Object complement
You may call me whatever bad names you know.

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Syntactic functions of subordinate clauses
As an element of a phrase
• Postmodifier in a noun phrase

I have never seen the man who is now speaking to Robert.

• Complement of a preposition

That would depend on what is in the chest

• Complement of an adjective

It will not be easy to speak to him.

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Functional classes of subordinate clauses
• Nominal
 that-clauses
 wh-clauses
 nominal relative clauses
 infinitive clauses
 ing-clauses

• Adverbial
• Relative
• Comparative

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Relative clauses
Will be discussed next time, as postmodifiers in the noun phrase

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Nominal clauses:
that-clauses
• Subject
That she is a liar is no secret.

• Direct object
We know that you have never been to Paris.

• Subject complement
My fear is that George will never believe your story.

• Appositive
I have the fear that Mrs Watson is in grave danger.

• Complement of an adjective
I am glad that you have finally been able to visit us.

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Nominal clauses:
wh-clauses
• Subject
How the thieves managed to open the safe is a mystery.

• Direct object
She knows why Geoffrey never posted that letter.

• Subject complement
The main question now is how to get there before Paul.

• Appositive
Your original question, why he did it, is no longer important.

• Complement of an adjective
I am perfectly aware how you feel towards George.

• Complement of a preposition
The solution to the problem depends on what assumptions you have made.

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Nominal clauses:
nominal relative clauses
• Subject
What she took from the drawer was the gun. ~ the thing that she took

• Direct object
We know who did it. ~ the man who did it.

• Subject complement
This is where I live. ~ the place where I live

• Object complement
Call me whatever you like. ~ any name you like.

• Appositive
I’ll pay you the debt: what I owe you. ~ the sum that I owe you.

• Complement of a preposition
I shall sit on whatever chair is the closest. ~

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Nominal clauses:
to-infinitive clauses
• Subject
To go there now would be unwise.

• Direct object
She began to cry.

• Subject complement
The best thing to do is to say nothing.

• Object complement
I want you to telephone the police at once.

• Appositive
Your ambition, to get married, is quite understandable.

• Complement of an adjective
I am glad to be of assistance.

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Nominal clauses:
bare infinitive clauses
• Subject in a pseudo-cleft sentence
Sit there reading my book was all I did.

• Subject complement in a pseudo-cleft sentence

What I did was (to) telephone the police at once.

• Object complement
I saw you telephone the police.

• Complement of but, except, other than, rather than

 She does nothing but grumble.
 There’s nothing more to do now except wait.
 And, rather than go direct to Soames himself, of whose taciturnity he was afraid, he
took his umbrella and went round to Timothy’s.
 Did you have to prepare for this? Other than just learn your lines?

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Nominal clauses:
ing-clauses
• Subject
Going there now would be unwise.

• Direct object
She began crying.

• Subject complement
The best thing to do is saying nothing.

• Object complement
I saw you telephoning the police.

• Appositive
Your ambition, getting married, is quite understandable.

• Complement of an adjective
I am glad being of assistance.

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Adverbial clauses
• Condition
 if, given that, granted that, so long as, as long as, provided that, providing that, supposing that

• Time
 as, as soon as, before, till, until

• Concession
 although, though, even if

• Cause
• Reason
• Purpose
• Comparison
• …
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Adverbial clauses: concession
• Future forms are not possible
 However late she comes, please ask her to telephone me.

• May/might are used to make the statement less tentative

 Do not believe him, whatever he may/might say.

• The predication may be fronted: as, that, though

 See her though I did, we didn’t speak to each other.
 Fool as he may look, deceiving him is not easy.
 Charming that she may be, do not trust her.
 Watching the cricket as he was, he heard every word that was said in the kitchen.

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Adverbial clauses: reason
• The predication may be fronted: as, that
 Fool as he is, deceiving him is easy.
 Charming that she may be, she can fool men easily.
 Watching the cricket as he was, he didn’t hear what they said.

The meaning of the subordinate clause depends on the context.

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Adverbial clauses: purpose
• Non-finite clause: in order to, to + V1
 She left in order to allow him to think about everything.

• Finite clause: that + may/might + V1

 The door of Scrooge’s counting-house was open that he might keep his eye upon his
clerk, who in a dismal little cell beyond, a sort of tank, was copying letters.
 Scrooge sat with his door wide open, that he might see him come into the Tank.

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Adverbial clauses: purpose
• Finite clause: so that, in order that + shall/should/may/might + V1/V1
 Ellen had wrung her hands and counseled delay, in order that Scarlett might think the
matter over at greater length.
 In order that there be a 100% probability of the particle being somewhere, the wave
function must be normalized …
 In order that the time-dependence of expectation values should be the same in both
pictures, we must …
 In order that the infinite product may be absolutely convergent, it is necessary and
sufficient that the series should be absolutely convergent.
 Transform the equation to new axes parallel respectively to the original axes, so
choosing the origin that there shall be no terms of the first degree in x and y in the
new equation.

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Adverbial clauses:
sentential relative clauses
The sentential relative clause refers back to the predicate or predication of a
clause ([1] and [2]), or to a whole clause or sentence ([3] or [4]), or to a series of
sentences ([5]):

 She said she would come, which she did. [1]

 He will watch TV for hours, which I cannot do. [2]
 Roger never showed up, which is typical of him. [3]
 Audrey’s dress was rather bold, which created quite a stir among the gentlemen and
made the ladies whisper. [4]
 … – which is how it all ended. [at the end of a story] [5]

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Comparative clauses
• Jack is as clever as Roger (is).
• Jack is taller than Roger (is).
• This year we have about three times as mush snow as (we had) last year.
• Audrey has four times as many books as I (have).

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References
1. S. Greenbaum and R. Quirk, A Student’s Grammar of the English Language,
Longman, 1990.
2. S. Greenbaum, The Oxford Reference Grammar, ed. by E. Weiner, OUP,
2000.
3. S. Greenbaum, G. Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, 3rd ed.,
Routledge, 2009.
4. S. Greenbaum, The Oxford English Grammar, OUP, 1996
5. Numerous references at https://disk.yandex.ru/d/du4HxBCSBc5R3Q

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— which is the end of this lecture.

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