Operational Amplifiers (Op

amps)

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Sub topics
• Introduction
• 1 The Ideal Op Amp
• 2 The Inverting Configuration
• 3 The Noninverting Configuration
• 4 Integrators and Differentiators
• 5 DC Imperfections
• 6 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and Bandwidth on Circuit
Performance
• 7 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps
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Learning Objectives
• 1. The terminal characteristics of the ideal op amp.
• 2. How to analyze circuits containing op amps, resistors, and
capacitors.
• 3. How to use op amps to design amplifiers having precise
characteristics.
• 4. How to design more sophisticated op-amp circuits, including
summing amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers, integrators, and
differentiators.
• 5. Important nonideal characteristics of op amps and how these limit
the performance of basic op-amp circuits.
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Introduction
• Op amps have been in use for a long time
• Their initial applications being primarily in the areas of analog computation and
sophisticated instrumentation.
• Early op amps were constructed from discrete components (vacuum tubes and then
transistors, and resistors),
• In the mid-1960s the first integrated-circuit (IC) op amp was produced. It consisted of a
relatively large number of transistors and resistors all on the same silicon chip.
• One of the reasons for the popularity of the op amp is its versatility i.e. many applications.
• Equally important is the fact that the IC op amp has characteristics that closely approach
the assumed ideal. This implies that it is quite easy to design circuits using the IC op amp.
• By the end of this chapter you should be able to successfully design nontrivial circuits
using op amps.

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Intro cont’d
• An IC op amp is made up of a large number (about 20) of transistors
together with resistors, and (usually) one capacitor connected in a
rather complex circuit.
• Since we have not yet studied transistor circuits, the circuit inside the
op amp will not be discussed in this chapter.
• Rather, we will treat the op amp as a circuit building block and study
its terminal characteristics and its applications.
• Refer to chapter 13 of microelectronics circuits for circuit details of an
op amp

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The Ideal Op Amp
• Circuit symbol Terminals
1. Inverting input (-)
2. Noninverting input (+)
3. Output terminal

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Ideal Op amp
• Other important terminals
• 4 , 5 power supply terminals (in
diagram 4 is connected to the
positive power supply VCC and 5
is connected to the negative
power supply – VEE)
• Frequency compensation
• Offset nulling

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Ideal op amp: Circuit function
• The op amp is designed to sense the difference between the voltage
signals applied at its two input terminals (i.e., the quantity v2 −v1),
multiply this by a number A, and cause the resulting voltage A(v2 −v1)
to appear at output terminal 3.
• Thus v3 = A(v2 −v1).
• Here it should be emphasized that when we talk about the voltage at
a terminal we mean the voltage between that terminal and ground;
thus v1 means the voltage applied between terminal 1 and ground.

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Ideal Op amp: Characteristics
• The ideal op amp is not supposed to draw any input current; that is, the
signal current into terminal 1 and the signal current into terminal 2 are
both zero. In other words, the input impedance of an ideal op amp is
supposed to be infinite.
• Terminal 3 is supposed to act as the output terminal of an ideal voltage
source. That is, the voltage between terminal 3 and ground will always
be equal to A(v2 −v1), independent of the current that may be drawn
from terminal 3 into a load impedance. In other words, the output
impedance of an ideal op amp is supposed to be zero.
• An ideal op amp has zero common-mode gain or, equivalently, infinite
common-mode rejection that is rejects common signals such as noise
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Ideal Op amp: Characteristics
• An op amp is a differential-input, single-ended-output amplifier, with
the latter term referring to the fact that the output appears between
terminal 3 and ground. The gain A is called the differential gain, and
also referred to as the open-loop gain. The open loop gain for an ideal
op amp is infinite.
• They are direct-coupled or dc amplifiers, (direct-coupled amplifier is
one that amplifies signals whose frequency is as low as zero).
• The ideal op amp has a gain A that remains constant down to zero
frequency and up to infinite frequency. That is, ideal op amps will
amplify signals of any frequency with equal gain, and are thus said to
have infinite bandwidth.
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Ideal Op amp: Characteristics

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The Inverting Configuration
• Op amps are not used alone because of the large
open loop gain A.
• The op amp is connected to passive components in a
feedback circuit. This improves accuracy and stability.
• There are two such basic circuit configurations
employing an op amp and two resistors: the
inverting configuration and the noninverting
configuration.
• The inverting configuration consists of one op amp
and two resistors R1 and R2.
• Resistor R2 is connected from the output terminal of
the op amp, terminal 3, back to the inverting or
negative input terminal, terminal 1. Thus R2 applies
negative feedback.
• If R2 were connected between terminals 3 and 2 we
would have called this positive feedback.

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The Inverting Configuration
• In addition to addingR2,wehave grounded terminal 2 and connected a
resistor R1 between terminal 1 and an input signal source with a
voltage vI .
• The output of the overall circuit is taken at terminal 3 (i.e., between
terminal 3 and ground).
• Terminal 3 is, of course, a convenient point from which to take the
output, since the impedance level there is ideally zero. Thus the
voltage vO will not depend on the value of the current that might be
supplied to a load impedance connected between terminal 3 and
ground.
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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain
• We now wish to analyze the circuit to determine the closed-loop gain
G, defined as

• Assume the op amp to be ideal.

• The gain A is very large (ideally infinite). If we assume that the circuit
is “working” and producing a finite output voltage at terminal 3, then
the voltage between the op-amp input terminals should be negligibly
small and ideally zero. Specifically, if we call the output voltage vO,
then, by definition, vI

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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain
• It follows that the voltage at the inverting input terminal (v1) is given by v1
= v2.
• Because the gain A approaches infinity, the voltage v1 approaches and
ideally equals v2.
• Thus the two input terminals “track each other in potential” or “virtual
short circuit” exists between the two input terminals.
• A virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage is at 2 will automatically
appear at 1 because of the infinite gain A.
• But terminal 2 happens to be connected to ground; thus v2 = 0 and v1 = 0.
Thus terminal 1 is at virtual ground—that is, having zero voltage but not
physically connected to ground.
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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain

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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain

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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain

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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain
• We thus see that the closed-loop gain is simply the ratio of the two
resistances R2 and R1.
• The minus sign means that the closed-loop amplifier provides signal
inversion.
• Thus if R2/R1 = 10 and we apply at the input (vI ) a sine-wave signal of
1 V peak-to-peak, then the output vO will be a sine wave of 10 V peak-
to-peak and phase-shifted 180° with respect to the input sine wave.
Because of the minus sign associated with the closed-loop gain, this
configuration is called the inverting configuration.

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The Inverting Configuration: The Closed-
Loop Gain
• The fact that the closed-loop gain depends entirely on external passive
components (resistors R1 and R2) is very significant.
• It means that we can make the closed-loop gain as accurate as we want
by selecting passive components of appropriate accuracy.
• It also means that the closed-loop gain is (ideally) independent of the
op-amp gain.
• This is a dramatic illustration of negative feedback: We started out with
an amplifier having very large gain A, and through applying negative
feedback we have obtained a closed-loop gain R2/R1 that is much
smaller than A but is stable and predictable. That is, we are trading gain
for accuracy.
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The Inverting Configuration: Effect of
Finite Open-Loop Gain
• If we denote the output voltage vO, then the voltage between the two
input terminals of the op amp will be vO/A.
• Since the positive input terminal is grounded, the voltage at the
negative input terminal must be −vO/A. The current i1 through R1 can
now be found from

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The Inverting Configuration: Effect of
Finite Open-Loop Gain

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The Inverting Configuration: Effect of
Finite Open-Loop Gain

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The Inverting Configuration: Effect of
Finite Open-Loop Gain
• We note that as A approaches ∞, G approaches the ideal value of
−R2/R1.
• Also, from the figure above we see that as A approaches ∞, the
voltage at the inverting input terminal approaches zero.
• This is the virtual-ground assumption we used in our earlier analysis
when the op amp was ideal.
• To minimize the dependence of the closed-loop gain G on the value of
the open-loop gain A, we should make

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The Inverting Configuration: Terminal
characteristics
• Input resistance is R1
• Output resistance is zero

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The Inverting Configuration: Trial
problem
• Use the circuit below to design an •
inverting amplifier having a gain
of −10 and an input resistance of
100 kΩ. Give the values of R1 and
R2.
• Solution:
• Input resistance Ri = R1 = 100 kΩ
• Gain = - R2/R1 = - 10
• Therefore:
• R2 = 10*R1 = 1000 kΩ or 1 MΩ
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An Important Application—The Weighted Summer

• used in mixing signals originating from different musical instruments (audio systems)
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The weighted summer
• Design an inverting op-amp circuit to form the weighted sum vO of
two inputs v1 and v2. It is required that vO =−(v1+5v2). Choose values
for R1, R2, and Rf so that for a maximum output voltage of 10 V the
current in the feedback resistor will not exceed 1 mA.
•)

• /5
• For this design problem, the optimum value for Rf = 10V/1mA = 10 kΩ
• Thus R1 = 10 kΩ and R2 = 2 kΩ
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The noninverting configuration
Note: Input to the noninverting
input terminal
Closed loop gain

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Noninverting configuration
• Closed loop gain

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Noninverting configuration: Summary of
characteristics

• Infinite input impedance

• Zero output impedance
• Assignment
• Derive the closed loop gain for the noninverting configuration for a finite
open loop gain

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Voltage follower
• Special circuit utilising
noninverting configuration
• Show that the closed loop gain:

• Infinite input impedance

• Zero output impedance
• Useful as a buffer amplifier to
connect a high impedance
source to a low impedance load.

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Op amp circuit with general impedances
• Transfer function

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Example

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Example cont’d
• Dc gain K: set

• 3dB/cutoff frequency: set the magnitude of the denominator to

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Inverting integrator

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Inverting integrator: Trial problem

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Inverting integrator: Trial problem

Fig. a: Input, Fig. b: Output of Miller • Fig. c: Output of shunted Miller

integrator integrator with Rf
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Inverting integrator
• Explain the d.c. problem of the Miller integrator and how it can be
solved.

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Inverting differentiator

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Inverting differentiator
• Why is an inverting differentiator referred to as a noise magnifier?
• Why is it avoided in practice?

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DC imperfections
• These are some of the important nonideal properties of op amps
1. Offset voltage
2. Input bias currents

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Offset voltage
• If the two input terminals of the op amp are tied together and connected
to ground, it will be found that despite the fact that the differential input
voltage vId = 0, a finite dc voltage exists at the output.
• If the op amp has a high dc gain, the output will be at either the positive
or negative saturation level.
• The op-amp output can be brought back to its ideal value of 0 V by
connecting a dc voltage source of appropriate polarity and magnitude
between the two input terminals of the op amp. This external source
balances out the input offset voltage of the op amp. It follows that the
input offset voltage (VOS) must be of equal magnitude and of opposite
polarity to the voltage we applied externally.
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Offset voltage
• The input offset voltage arises as a result of the unavoidable mismatches present
in the input differential stage inside the op amp. Refer to chapters 9 and effect of
VOS on the operation of closed-loop op-amp circuits.
• General-purpose op amps exhibit VOS in the range of 1 mV to 5 mV.
• Also, the value of VOS depends on temperature.
• The op-amp data sheets usually specify typical and maximum values for VOS at
room temperature as well as the temperature coefficient of VOS (usually in
μV/°C).
• They do not, however, specify the polarity of VOS because the component
mismatches that give rise to VOS are obviously not known a priori; different units
of the same op-amp type may exhibit either a positive or a negative VOS.
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Offset voltage

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Offset voltage
• Effect of Vos: It is amplified to give an output Vo
• When an input signal is applied to an amplifier with offset voltage, the
desired output signal is superimposed on the output offset voltage Vos.
• This reduces the signal swing i.e. peak values of the input signal.
• It also creates ambiguity if the input is dc since the output is due to both
the desired signal and the offset voltage
• Offset voltage can be overcome by:
1. Using a potentiometer between the two offset nulling terminals
2. Capacitively coupling the input: recall capacitors block dc (provide infinite
impedance to dc)
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Input bias currents
• These are currents that must be supplied to the op amp input
terminals in order to bias the transistors in it. This is regardless of the
large input impedance
• These two currents are represented by two current sources, IB1 and IB2,
connected to the two input terminals

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Input bias currents
• Effect of input bias currents

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Input bias currents
• How is the effect of the input bias currents minimised?

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Finite open loop gain and bandwidth
• Open loop gain drops off with frequency

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Large signal operation of op amps
• Saturation
• Slew rate

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Output voltage saturation
• Similar to all other amplifiers, op amps operate linearly over a limited
range of output voltages.
• Specifically, the op-amp output saturates in the manner shown with L+
and L− within 1Vor so of the positive and negative power supplies,
respectively.
• Thus, an op amp that is operating from ± 15 V supplies will saturate
when the output voltage reaches about +13 V in the positive direction
and -13 V in the negative direction.
• To avoid clipping off the peaks of the output waveform, and the resulting
waveform distortion, the input signal must be kept correspondingly
small.
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Output voltage saturation

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Output voltage saturation
• Output current limits: maximum current which an op amp can supply.
It includes current in the feedback loop and in the load.
• The output current from the op amp can not exceed this value

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Output voltage saturation: Problem

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Output voltage saturation: Problem

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Output voltage saturation: Problem

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Slew rate
• The slew rate (SR) of the op amp is a specific maximum rate of
change possible at the output of a real op amp
• It causes nonlinear distortion when large output signals are present

• Has units of on manufacturers’ data sheets

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References
• A. S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2015), Microelectronic circuits, Oxford
University Press, New York.61

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