L E A RN I N G

TO LE A R N I S A
NATURAL P L E A S U R E ARISTOTLE
K PH IL OSOPH ER , 4TH CENTURY, B.C.
G R EE
WHAT LEARNING IS AND WHAT IS
NOT?

• LEARNING
• A RELATIVELY PERMANENT INFLUENCE ON BEHAVIOR,
KNOWLEDGE, AND THINKING SKILLS THAT COMES ABOUT
THROUGH EXPERIENCE

• NOT EVERYTHING WE KNOW IS LEARNED. WE INHERIT SOME

CAPACITIES, INBORN OR INNATE NOT LEARNED.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
• COGNITIVE APPROACH
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• COGNITIVE APPROACH
• COGNITION =THOUGHT
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE, INFORMATION PROCESSING, COGNITIVE
CONSTRUCTIVIST, SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACHES TO LEARNING SOCIAL
COGNITIVE

SOCIAL COGNITIVE INFORMATION

CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES PROCESSING

COGNITIVE
CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• COMPLEX COGNITIVE PROCESSES
1. CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING (WHAT ARE CONCEPTS,
CONCEPT FORMATION)
2. THINKING (WHAT IS THINKING, REASONING, CRITICAL
THINKING, DECISION MAKING, CREATIVE THINKING)
3. PROBLEM SOLVING (STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING, OBSTACLES,
PROBLEM-BASED, PROJECT-BASED LEARNING)
4. TRANSFER (WHAT IS TRANSFER, TYPES OF TRANSFER)
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
 KEY ASPECT OF LEARNING
IMPORTANT TEACHING GOAL TO HELP STUDENTS UNDERSTAND THE
MAIN CONCEPTS IN THE SUBJECT MATTER RATHER THAN JUST
MEMORIZE THE SUBJECT FACTS
ENHANCED WHEN THE TEACHERS EXPLORE A TOPIC IN DEPTH AND
GIVE APPROPRIATE, INTERESTING EXAMPLES OF THE CONCEPTS
INVOLVED.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
 WHAT ARE CONCEPTS?
GROUP OF OBJECTS, EVENTS AND CHARACTERISTICS ON THE BASIS OF
COMMON PROPERTIES
HELPS US TO SIMPLIFY, SUMMARIZE, AND ORGANIZE INFORMATION
(QUINN 2009, 2011)
HELP STUDENTS MAKE SENSE OF THE WORLD
AID IN THE PROCESS OF REMEMBERING, MAKING IT MORE EFFICIENT
(RACINE, 2011)
MAKE COMMUNICATION MORE EFFICIENT
CAN BE SIMPLE, CLEAR, CONCRETE, OR COMPLEX, FUZZY, AND ABSTRACT
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
PROMOTING CONCEPT FORMATION
LEARNING ABOUT THE FEATURES OF CONCEPTS
1. DEFINING CONCEPTS
2. HIERARCHICAL CATEGORIZATION AND CONCEPT MAPS
3. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
4. PROTOTYPE MATCHING
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
PROMOTING CONCEPT FORMATION
LEARNING ABOUT THE FEATURES OF
CONCEPTS
DEFINING CONCEPTS
1. DEFINE THE CONCEPT.
2. CLARIFY TERMS IN THE DEFINITION.
3. GIVE EXAMPLES TO ILLUSTRATE THE KEY FEATURES OR CHARACTERISTICS.
4. PROVIDE ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
PROMOTING CONCEPT FORMATION
LEARNING ABOUT THE FEATURES OF
CONCEPTS
HIERARCHICAL CATEGORIZATION AND CONCEPT MAPS
TAKING ON CHARACTERISTICS AND FEATURES FROM BEING A MEMBER OF A
CATEGORY

CONCEPT MAP IS A VISUAL PRESENTATION OF A

CONCEPTS CONNECTIONS AND HIERARCHICAL
ORGANIZATION.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
PROMOTING CONCEPT FORMATION
LEARNING ABOUT THE FEATURES OF
CONCEPTS
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
DETERMINE WHAT A CONCEPT IS AND IS NOT
SPECIFIC ASSUMPTIONS AND PREDICTIONS THAT CAN BE TESTED TO DETERMINE
THEIR ACCURACY
WHY OBJECTS FALL ON THE CATEGORY AND WHY OTHERS DO NOT
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING
PROMOTING CONCEPT FORMATION
LEARNING ABOUT THE FEATURES OF
CONCEPTS
PROTOTYPE MATCHING
PROTOTYPE- AN ORIGINAL MODEL ON WHICH SOMETHING IS
PATTERNED
INDIVIDUALS DECIDE WHETHER AN ITEM IS A MEMBER OF A CATEGORY BY
COMPARING IT WITH THE MOST TYPICAL ITEM (S) OF THE CATEGORY
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
INVOLVES MANIPULATING AND TRANSFORMING INFORMATION IN MEMORY
WE THINK TO:
FORM CONCEPTS
REASON
THINK CRITICALLY
MAKE DECISIONS
THINK CREATIVELY
SOLVE PROBLEMS
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
CRITICAL THINKING
DECISION MAKING
CREATIVE THINKING
CONVERGENT THINKING
DIVERGENT THINKING
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• THINKING
REASONING
 LOGICAL THINKING THAT USES INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION TO REACH A
CONCLUSION
1. INDUCTIVE REASONING
2. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
REASONING FROM SPECIFIC TO GENERAL
DRAWING CONCLUSIONS (FORMING CONCEPTS) ABOUT ALL MEMBERS OF A
CATEGORY BASED ON OBSERVING ONLY SOME OF ITS MEMBERS
GOOD PREDICTOR OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
EXAMPLES: STUDY OF SAMPLES TO DRAW CONCLUSIONS ABOUT THE
POPULATION FROM WHICH THE SAMPLE IS DRAWN
REPEATED OBSERVATION IS AN IMPORTANT ASPECT
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONING
TEACHERS CAN HELP IMPROVE STUDENTS’ INDUCTIVE REASONING BY
ENCOURAGING THEM THAT THE CONCLUSION THEY REACH DEPENDS ON THE
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF THE INFORMATION AVAILABLE
ANALOGY CORRESPONDENCE BETWEEN OTHERWISE DISSIMILAR THINGS,
IMPROVES STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF THE CONCEPTS BY COMPARING THEM
WITH ALREADY LEARNED CONCEPT.
EX. BETHOOVEN IS TO MUSIC: PICASSO IS TO _________.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
REASONING
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
REASONING FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC
EX. WHEN YOU LEARN ABOUT GENERAL RULE AND APPLY IT IN SOME
SITUATIONS BUT NOT OTHERS
ALWAYS CERTAIN IN THAT IF INITIAL RULES OR ASSUMPTIONS ARE TRUE,
CONCLUSIONS WILL BE CORRECT.
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
 CRITICAL THINKING
INVOLVES THINKING REFLECTIVELY AND PRODUCTIVELY AND EVALUATING
THE EVIDENCE.
MINDFULNESS (ELLEN LANGER) IS A KEY TO CRITICAL THINKING; MEANS
BEING ALERT, MENTALLY PRESENT, AND COGNITIVELY FLEXIBLE WHILE GOING
THROUGH LIFE’S EVERYDAY ACTIVITIES AND TASKS.
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
 DECISION MAKING
EVALUATING ALTERNATIVES AND MAKING CHOICES AMONG THEM
BIASES IN DECISION MAKING
1. CONFIRMATION BIAS. THE TENDENCY TO SEARCH FOR AND USE
INFORMATION THAT SUPPORT OUT IDEAS RATHER THAN REFUTES THEM.
2. BELIEF PERSEVERANCE. THE TENDENCY TO HOLD ON TO A BELIEF IN THE
FACE OF CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE
3. OVERCONFIDENCE BIAS. THE TENDENCY TO HAVE MORE CONFIDENCE IN
JUDGMENTS AND DECISIONS THAN WE SHOULD HAVE (BASED ON
PROBABILITY OR PAST EXPERIENCE)
4. HINDSIGHT BIAS. THE TENDENCY TO FALSELY REPORT AFTER THE FACT THAT
WE ACCURATELY PREDICTED AN EVENT.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• THINKING
CREATIVE THINKING
CREATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO THINK ABOUT SOMETHING IN NOVEL AND
UNUSUAL WAYS AND COME UP WITH UNIQUE SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
CREATIVE THINKING
CONVERGENT THINKING. PRODUCES ONE CORRECT ANSWER AND IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF THE KIND OF THINKING REQUIRED ON CONVENTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE TEST.
DIVERGENT THINKING PRODUCES MANY ANSWERS TO QUESTION AND IS
MORE CHARACTERISTIC OF CREATIVITY
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
CREATIVE THINKING
STEPS IN THE CREATIVE PROCESS
1. PREPARATION. (CURIOSITY IS AROUSED)
2. INCUBATION. (CHURN IDEAS IN HEAD)
3. INSIGHT. (AHA EXPERIENCE)
4. EVALUATION.
5. ELABORATION. (CREATIVITY IS 1% INSPIRATION AND 99% PERSPIRATION,
THOMAS EDISON)
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• THINKING
CREATIVE THINKING
TEACHING AND CREATIVITY
 FLOW. A HEIGHTENED STATE OF PLEASURE EXPERIENCED WHEN WE RE
ENGAGED IN MENTAL AND PHYSICAL CHALLENGES THAT ABSORB US; ACHIEVED
THROUGH CULTIVATING CURIOSITY AND INTEREST.
HOW TO CULTIVATE CURIOSITY AND INTEREST?
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

PROBLEM SOLVING
FINDING AN APPROPRIATE WAY TO ATTAIN A GOAL
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• PROBLEM SOLVING
STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING
1. FIND AND FRAME PROBLEMS.
2. DEVELOP GOOD PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES.
3. EVALUATE SOLUTIONS
4. RETHINK AND REDEFINE PROBLEMS AND SOLUTION OVER TIME.
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES
1. SUBGOALING. INVOLVES SETTING INTERMEDIATE GOALS THAT PUT STUDENTS
IN A BETTER POSITION TO REACH FINAL GOAL OR SOLUTION.
2. ALGORITHMS. STRATEGIES THAT GUARANTEE A SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM.
(FORMULAS, INSTRUCTIONS, TESTS)
3. HEURISTICS. STRATEGIES OR RULES OF THUMB THAT CAN SUGGEST SOLUTION
TO A PROBLEM BUT DON’T ENSURE IT WILL WORK. HELPS IN NARROWING
DOWN SOLUTIONS TO FIND ONE THAT WORKS.
4. MEANS-END ANALYSIS ONE IDENTIFIES GOAL OF THE PROBLEM (END),
ASSESSES THE CURRENT SITUATION, AND EVALUATES WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE
(MEANS)
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• PROBLEM SOLVING
OBSTACLES TO PROBLEM SOLVING
1. FIXATION. USING PRIOR STRATEGY AND THEREBY FAILING TO
EXAMINE A PROBLEM FROM A FRESH, NEW PERSPECTIVE.
2. LACK OF MOTIVATION OR PERSISTENCE
3. INADEQUATE EMOTIONAL CONTROL
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
EMPHASIS IS ON SOLVING AUTHENTIC PROBLEMS LIKE THOSE THAT
OCCUR IN DAILY LIFE
TEACHER ORIENTS STUDENTS TO PROBLEM AND GETS STUDENTS TO
EXPLORE AND DISCOVER SOLUTION ON THEIR OWN
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• PROBLEM SOLVING
PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
1. ORIENT THE STUDENT TO THE PROBLEM. (GOALS, EXPECTATIONS,
MOTIVATION)
2. ORGANIZE STUDENTS FOR STUDY.
3. ASSIST INDEPENDENT AND GROUP INVESTIGATION. (INFORMATION,
EXPERIMENTS, SEARCH FOR EXPLANATIONS, AND SOLUTIONS)
4. DEVELOP AND PRESENT ARTIFACTS AND EXHIBITS. (REPORTS, VIDEOS,
DOCUMENTATIONS, WRITE UPS)
5. ANALYZE AND EVALUATE THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• PROBLEM SOLVING
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
STUDENTS WORK ON A REAL, MEANINGFUL PROBLEMS BEYOND THOSE OF
EVERYDAY LIFE AND CREATE TANGIBLE PRODUCTS
GIVES MORE ATTENTION TO THE END PRODUCT
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• PROBLEM SOLVING
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING
1. A DRIVING QUESTION. (KEY QUESTION OR PROBLEM TO BE SOLVED)
2. AUTHENTIC, SITUATED INQUIRY. (LEARNING FROM EXPERTS)
3. COLLABORATION. (STUDENTS, TEACHERS, AND COMMUNITY PARTICIPANTS
COLLABORATE TO FIND SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEM)
4. SCAFFOLDING. (LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES)
5. END PRODUCT. (TANGIBLE END PRODUCT)
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• TRANSFER
APPLYING PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES AND KNOWLEDGE TO LEARNING OR
PROBLEM SOLVING IN A NEW SITUATION
THE MAIN PURPOSE OF ANY LEARNING OR EDUCATION IS THAT A PERSON
WHO ACQUIRES SOME KNOWLEDGE OR SKILL IN A FORMAL OR
STRUCTURED SITUATION LIKE A CLASSROOM, OR A TRAINING SITUATION,
WILL BE ABLE TO TRANSFER SUCH KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS TO REAL-LIFE
SITUATIONS AND ADAPT HIMSELF MORE EFFECTIVELY.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
1. POSITIVE
2. NEGATIVE
3. NEUTRAL
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
1. POSITIVE
WHEN LEARNING IN ONE SITUATION FACILITATES LEARNING IN ANOTHER
SITUATION, IT IS KNOWN AS A POSITIVE TRANSFER.

FOR EXAMPLE, SKILLS IN PLAYING THE VIOLIN FACILITATE LEARNING TO

PLAY THE PIANO. KNOWLEDGE OF MATHEMATICS FACILITATES TO LEARN
PHYSICS IN A BETTER WAY. DRIVING A SCOOTER FACILITATES DRIVING A
MOTORBIKE.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
2. NEGATIVE
WHEN LEARNING OF ONE TASK MAKES THE LEARNING OF ANOTHER TASK
HARDER- IT IS KNOWN AS A NEGATIVE TRANSFER.

FOR EXAMPLE, SPEAKING TELUGU HINDERING THE LEARNING OF

MALAYALAM.

LEFT-HAND DRIVE VEHICLES HINDERING THE LEARNING OF RIGHT-HAND

DRIVE.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
3. NEUTRAL
WHEN LEARNING OF ONE ACTIVITY NEITHER FACILITATES OR HINDERS
THE LEARNING OF ANOTHER TASK, IT IS A CASE OF NEUTRAL TRANSFER.

IT IS ALSO CALLED AS ZERO TRANSFER.

APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
3. NEUTRAL
THEORY OF IDENTICAL ELEMENTS
THEORY OF GENERALIZATION OF EXPERIENCE
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
3. NEUTRAL
THEORY OF IDENTICAL ELEMENTS

THIS THEORY HAS BEEN DEVELOPED BY E.L.THORNDIKE. ACCORDING TO HIM MOST OF THE
TRANSFER OCCURS FROM ONE SITUATION TO ANOTHER IN WHICH THERE ARE MOST
SIMILAR OR IDENTICAL ELEMENTS.

THIS THEORY EXPLAINS THAT CARRYING OVER FROM ONE SITUATION TO ANOTHER IS
ROUGHLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE DEGREE OF RESEMBLANCE IN A SITUATION, IN OTHER
WORDS- MORE THE SIMILARITY, MORE THE TRANSFER.

THE DEGREE OF TRANSFER INCREASES AS THE SIMILARITY OF ELEMENTS INCREASES. FOR

EXAMPLE, LEARNING TO RIDE A MOPED IS EASY AFTER LEARNING TO RIDE A BICYCLE.
HERE, THE TRANSFER IS VERY FAST BECAUSE OF IDENTICAL ELEMENTS IN BOTH VEHICLES.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• TRANSFER
TYPES OF TRANSFER
3. NEUTRAL
THEORY OF GENERALIZATION OF EXPERIENCE
THIS THEORY WAS DEVELOPED BY CHARLES JUDD. THEORY OF GENERALIZATION ASSUMES THAT
WHAT IS LEARNED IN TASK ‘A’ TRANSFERS TO TASK ‘B’ BECAUSE IN STUDYING ‘A’, THE LEARNER
DEVELOPS A GENERAL PRINCIPLE WHICH APPLIES IN PART OR COMPLETELY IN BOTH ‘A’ AND ‘B’.

EXPERIENCES, HABITS, KNOWLEDGE GAINED IN ONE SITUATION HELP US TO THE EXTENT TO

WHICH THEY CAN BE GENERALIZED AND APPLIED TO OTHER SITUATIONS.

GENERALIZATION CONSISTS OF PERCEIVING AND UNDERSTANDING WHAT IS COMMON TO MANY

SITUATIONS. THE ABILITY OF INDIVIDUALS TO GENERALIZE KNOWLEDGE VARIES WITH THE
DEGREE OF THEIR INTELLIGENCE.