L E A RN I N G

TO LE A R N I S A
NATURAL P L E A S U R E ARISTOTLE
K PH IL OSOPH ER , 4TH CENTURY, B.C.
G R EE
WHAT LEARNING IS AND WHAT IS
NOT?

Learning

A relatively permanent influence on

behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills
that comes about through experience

NOT EVERYTHING WE KNOW IS

LEARNED. We inherit some capacities,
INBORN OR INNATE not learned.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

BEHAVIORAL APPROACH COGNITIVE APPROACH

APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• COGNITIVE APPROACH
• COGNITION =THOUGHT
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE, INFORMATION PROCESSING, COGNITIVE
CONSTRUCTIVIST, SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST
 SOCIAL
COGNITIVE

SOCIAL COGNITIVE INFORMATION

CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES PROCESSING

COGNITIVE
CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

1. BANDURA’S SOCIAL
COGNITIVE APPROACH
2. OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
3. COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR
APPROACHES AND SELF-
REGULATION
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY STATES THAT SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE
FACTORS, AS WELL AS BEHAVIOR, PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN
LEARNING
ALBERT BANDURA IS THE MAIN ARCHITECT OF SOCIAL COGNITIVE
THEORY; BELIEVES THAT WHEN STUDENTS LEARN, THEY CAN
COGNITIVELY REPRESENT OR TRANSFORM THEIR EXPERIENCES.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE
APPROACH
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM MODEL
CONSISTS OF THREE MAIN FACTORS:
BEHAVIOR
PERSON/COGNITIVE
ENVIRONMENT
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

BEHAVIOR ENVIRONMENT PERSON/

COGNITIVE
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
BANDURA’S SOCIAL COGNITIVE
APPROACH
SELF-EFFICACY BELIEF THAT ONE
CAN MASTER A SITUATION AND
PRODUCE POSITIVE OUTCOMES WAS
EMPHASIZED BY BANDURA.
SELF-EFFICACY (BANDURA) HAS A
POWERFUL INFLUENCE OVER
BEHAVIOR
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
IS A LEARNING THAT INVOLVES ACQUIRING SKILLS, STRATEGIES,
AND BELIEFS BY OBSERVING OTHERS.
INVOLVES IMITATION BUT IS NOT LIMITED TO IT.
ELIMINATES TRIAL AND ERROR
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
(PROCESS)
1. ATTENTION
2. RETENTION
3. PRODUCTION
4. MOTIVATION
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (PROCESS)
ATTENTION
STUDENTS MUST ATTEND TO WHAT MODEL IS DOING OR SAYING
HIGH STATUS MODEL, LOW STATUS MODEL
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (PROCESS)
RETENTION
INFORMATION MUST BE CODED AND KEPT IN MEMORY SO THAT STUDENT
CAN RETRIEVE IT
WILL IMPROVE IF TEACHERS GIVE VIVID, LOGICAL AND CLEAR
DEMONSTRATIONS
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (PROCESS)
PRODUCTION
MOTOR PERFORMANCE OF WHAT WAS SEEN
CAN BE IMPROVED WITH TEACHING, COACHING, AND PRACTICE
 • SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
(PROCESS)
MOTIVATION
REINFORCEMENT IS NOT ALWAYS
NECESSARY FOR OBSERVATIONAL
APPROACHES LEARNING;

TO LEARNING FOUR REINFORCEMENT TYPES IF

THE CHILD DID NOT REPRODUCE
THE DESIRED BEHAVIOR:
REWARD THE MODEL
REWARD THE CHILD
SELF-REINFORCING STATEMENT
BEHAVIOR LEADS TO
REINFORCING OUTCOME
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (PROCESS)
MODELED DEMONSTRATION IS AN INTENTIONAL WAY WHERE
TEACHER CAN MAKE USE OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING; A TEACHER
DESCRIBES AND SHOWS STUDENTS HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS AND
SUCCESSFULLY COMPLETE ACADEMIC TASK.
OTHER MODELS: PARENTS, MENTORS, PEERS, MEDIA
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES AND SELF-REGULATION
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES
EMPHASIS IS ON GETTING STUDENTS TO MONITOR, MANAGE, AND
REGULATE THEIR OWN BEHAVIOR RATHER THAN LETTING IT
CONTROLLED BY EXTERNAL FACTORS
TRY TO CHANGE STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS, STRENGTHEN
THEIR COPING SKILLS, INCREASE SELF-CONTROL, AND
ENCOURAGE CONSTRUCTIVE SELF-REGULATION
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES AND
SELF-REGULATION
SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
ARE COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR
TECHNIQUES AIMED AT TEACHING
INDIVIDUALS TO MODIFY THEIR OWN
BEHAVIOR BY TALKING TO THEMSELVES
IN POSITIVE WAYS
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
OACHES
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPR
HAVI OR AP PROACHES AND SELF-
COGN IT IV E BE
REGULATION
SELF-TALK STRATEGIES SS
1. PREPARE FOR ANXIETY OR STRE ETY OR
ANXI
2. CONFRONT AND HANDLE THE
STRESS
ICAL MOMENTS
3. COPE WITH FEELINGS AT CRIT T
MEN
4. USE REINFORCING SELF-STATE
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

UNCOUNTERED NEGATIVE THINKING HAS
A WAY OF BECOMING A SELF-FULFILLING
PROPHECY.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES AND SELF-REGULATION
SELF-REGULATORY LEARNING
1. SELF-GENERATION
2. SELF-MONITORING OF THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, AND BEHAVIORS IN
ORDER TO REACH A GOAL
3. GOALS CAN BE ACADEMIC OR SOCIOEMOTIONAL GOAL (CONTROLLING
ONE’S ANGER, GETTING ALONG BETTER WITH PEERS)
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES AND SELF-REGULATION
SELF-REGULATORY LEARNERS DO THE FF:
1. SET GOALS FOR EXTENDING KNOWLEDGE AND SUSTAINING THEIR
MOTIVATION;
2. AWARE OF EMOTIONAL MAKEUP AND HAVE STRATEGIES FOR
MANAGING THEIR EMOTIONS;
3. PERIODICALLY MONITOR THEIR PROGRESS TOWARD A GOAL
4. FINE-TUNE OR REVISE THEIR STRATEGIES BASED ON THE PROGRESS
THEY ARE MAKING; AND
5. EVALUATE OBSTACLES AND MAKE THE NECESSARY ADAPTATIONS.
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES AND SELF-REGULATION
SELF-REGULATORY LEARNING
• HIGH-ACHIEVING STUDENTS ARE OFTEN SELF-REGULATORY
(RESEARCH)
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES

COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR APPROACHES AND SELF-REGULATION
SELF-REGULATORY LEARNING MODEL (BARRY ZIMMERMAN,
SEBASTIAN BONNER, ROBERT KOVACH)
1. SELF-EVALUATION AND MONITORING;
2. GOAL SETTING AND STRATEGIC PLANNING;
3. PUTTING PLAN INTO ACTION; AND
4. MONITORING OUTCOMES AND REFINING STRATEGIES.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

1. INFORMATION, MEMORY AND THINKING
2. COGNITIVE RESOURCES: CAPACITY AND SPEED OF
PROCESSING INFORMATION; AND
3. MECHANISMS OF CHANGE
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
INFORMATION, MEMORY AND THINKING
INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH EMPHASIZES THAT CHILDREN
MANIPULATE INFORMATION, MONITOR IT, AND STRATEGIZE ABOUT IT;
CENTRAL TO THIS APPROACH ARE THE PROCESSES OF MEMORY AND
THINKING.
CHILDREN DEVELOP GRADUALLY INCREASING CAPACITY FOR
INFORMATION PROCESSING, ALLOWING THEM TO ACQUIRE
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS.
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
COGNITIVE RESOURCES: CAPACITY AND SPEED OF PROCESSING
INFORMATION
INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH EMPHASIZES THAT CHILDREN
MANIPULATE INFORMATION, MONITOR IT, AND STRATEGIZE ABOUT IT;
CENTRAL TO THIS APPROACH ARE THE PROCESSES OF MEMORY AND
THINKING.
CHILDREN DEVELOP GRADUALLY INCREASING CAPACITY FOR
INFORMATION PROCESSING, ALLOWING THEM TO ACQUIRE
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
1. NATURE OF INFORMATION PROCESSING
APPROACH A) INFORMATION, MEMORY
AND THINKING B) COGNITIVE
RESOURCES: CAPACITY AND SPEED OF
PROCESSING INFORMATION; AND C)
MECHANISMS OF CHANGE
2. ATTENTION
3. MEMORY
4. METACOGNITION
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
A. INFORMATION, MEMORY AND THINKING
INFORMATION-PROCESSING APPROACH EMPHASIZES THAT CHILDREN
MANIPULATE INFORMATION, MONITOR IT, AND STRATEGIZE ABOUT
IT; CENTRAL TO THIS APPROACH ARE THE PROCESSES OF MEMORY
AND THINKING.
CHILDREN DEVELOP GRADUALLY INCREASING CAPACITY FOR
INFORMATION PROCESSING, ALLOWING THEM TO ACQUIRE
INCREASINGLY COMPLEX KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

B. COGNITIVE RESOURCES: CAPACITY AND
SPEED OF PROCESSING INFORMATION
FACTORS TO GROWTH OF COGNITIVE
RESOURCES: (A) BIOLOGY (B) EXPERIENCE
INCREASE IN CAPACITY AND SPEED
IMPROVES PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
INCREASED INFORMATION PROCESSING
CAPACITY= SEVERAL DIMENSIONS OF TOPIC
OR PROBLEM SIMULTANEOUSLY
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
C. MECHANISMS OF CHANGE
(ROBERT SIEGLER)
MECHANISMS THAT WORK
TOGETHER TO CREATE CHANGE IN
CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE SKILLS:
1. ENCODING
2. AUTOMATICITY
3. STRATEGY CONSTRUCTION
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
MECHANISMS OF CHANGE (ROBERT
SIEGLER)
MECHANISMS THAT WORK TOGETHER TO
CREATE CHANGE IN CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE
SKILLS:
ENCODING
PROCESS BY WHICH INFORMATION
GETS STORED IN THE MEMORY
SKILL AT ENCODING INFORMATION
AND IGNORING IRRELEVANT
INFORMATION
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
 MECHANISMS OF CHANGE (ROBERT SIEGLER)
 MECHANISMS THAT WORK TOGETHER TO
CREATE CHANGE IN CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE
SKILLS:
 AUTOMATICITY
 REFERS TO THE ABILITY TO PROCESS
INFORMATION WITH LITTLE OR NO
EFFORT.
 PRACTICE ALLOWS CHILDREN TO
ENCODE INCREASING AMOUNTS OF
INFORMATION AUTOMATICALLY.
 EX. WHEN CHILDREN LEARNED TO READ
WELL THEY DO NOT THINK ABOUT EACH
LETTER IN A WORD AS LETTER INSTEAD
THEY ENCODE WHOLE WORDS.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
 MECHANISMS OF CHANGE (ROBERT
SIEGLER)
 MECHANISMS THAT WORK TOGETHER TO
CREATE CHANGE IN CHILDREN’S
COGNITIVE SKILLS:
 STRATEGY CONSTRUCTION
 CREATION OF NEW PROCEDURE
IN PROCESSING INFORMATION
 DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE
STRATEGIES AND SELECTING THE
BEST ONE IS CRITICAL ASPECT OF
BECOMING AN EFFECTIVE
LEARNER
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

MECHANISMS OF CHANGE (ROBERT SIEGLER)
MECHANISMS THAT WORK TOGETHER TO
CREATE CHANGE IN CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE
SKILLS:
SELF-MODIFICATION
CHILDREN LEARN TO USE WHAT THEY
HAVE LEARNED IN PREVIOUS
CIRCUMSTANCES TO ADAPT THEIR
RESPONSES TO A NEW SITUATION
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH
 MECHANISMS OF CHANGE (ROBERT SIEGLER)
 MECHANISMS THAT WORK TOGETHER TO
CREATE CHANGE IN CHILDREN’S COGNITIVE
SKILLS:
 METACOGNITION
 KNOWING ABOUT KNOWING
 EX. CHILDREN KNOW BEST WAYS TO
REMEMBER WHAT THEY HAVE
LEARNED
 CHILDREN PLAY AN ACTIVE ROLE IN
THEIR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
WHEN THEY DEVELOP
METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• ATTENTION
• WHAT IS ATTENTION?
• DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• ATTENTION
• FOCUSING OF MENTAL
RESOURCES
• IMPROVES COGNITIVE
PROCESSING FOR MANY TASKS
• ALLOCATION OF ATTENTION:
1. SELECTIVE ATTENTION
2. DIVIDED ATTENTION
3. SUSTAINED ATTENTION
4. EXECUTIVE ATTENTION
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• ATTENTION
• ALLOCATION OF ATTENTION:
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
FOCUSING ON A SPECIFIC ASPECT OF
EXPERIENCE THAT IS RELEVANT
WHILE IGNORING OTHERS THAT ARE
IRRELEVANT
EX. FOCUSING ON ONE VOICE AMONG
MAN IN A CROWDED ROOM OR A NOISY
RESTAURANT
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• ATTENTION
• ALLOCATION OF ATTENTION:
DIVIDED ATTENTION
CONCENTRATING ON MORE
THAN ONE ACTIVITY AT
THE SAME TIME
EX. LISTENING TO MUSIC
WHILE READING
MULTITASKING DIVIDING
ATTENTION NOT ONLY IN
TWO ACTIVITIES BUT EVEN
IN THREE OR MORE
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• ATTENTION
• ALLOCATION OF ATTENTION:
SUSTAINED ATTENTION
THE ABILITY TO MAINTAIN ATTENTION
OVER AN EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME
ALSO CALLED VIGILANCE
EX. LISTENING TO MUSIC WHILE READING
VERY IMPORTANT ASPECT OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
EX. READING A CHAPTER FROM START TO
FINISH WITHOUT INTERRUPTION
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• ATTENTION
• ALLOCATION OF ATTENTION:
EXECUTIVE ATTENTION
INVOLVES ACTION LIKE PLANNING, ALLOCATING ATTENTION TO GOALS,
ERROR DETECTION AND COMPENSATION, MONITORING PROGRESS ON
TASKS, AND DEALING WITH NOVEL OR DIFFICULT CIRCUMSTANCES
VERY IMPORTANT ASPECT OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
EX. EFFECTIVELY DEPLOYING ATTENTION TO EFFECTIVELY ENGAGE IN
AFOREMENTIONED COGNITIVE TASKS WHILE WRITING A 10 PAGE PAPER FOR
HISTORY COURSE
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• ATTENTION
• STRATEGIES FOR HELPING STUDENTS PAY ATTENTION
1. ENCOURAGE STUDENTS TO PAY CLOSE ATTENTION AND MINIMIZE DISTRACTION;
2. USE CUES OF GESTURES TO SIGNAL THAT SOMETHING IS IMPORTANT (RAISING VOICE, REPEATING
SOMETHING WITH EMPHASIS, WRITING THE CONCEPT ON THE BOARD, BE EXPLICIT)
3. HELP STUDENTS GENERATE THEIR OWN CUE OR CATCH PHRASE FOR WHEN THEY NEED TO PAY
ATTENTION;
4. MAKE LEARNING INTERESTING (RELATE IDEAS TO STUDENTS’ INTERESTS, NOVEL, UNUSUAL, OR
SURPRISING EXERCISES, THINK OF RELEVANT QUESTIONS);
5. USE MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGY EFFECTIVELY AS PART OF YOUR EFFORT TO VARY PACE;
6. FOCUS ON ACTIVE LEARNING;
7. DON’T OVERLOAD STUDENTS WITH TOO MUCH INFORMATION;
8. BE AWARE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS’ ATTENTION SKILLS;
9. CONSIDER DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES IN ATTENTION;
10. MINIMIZE DISTRACTIONS;
11. OCCASIONALLY ACCEPT THE ATTENTIONAL HOLD OF THE DISTRACTION AND INCORPORATE IT INTO YOUR
DAY.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• MEMORY
• WHAT IS MEMORY?
• ENCODING
• STORAGE
• RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• MEMORY
• WHAT IS MEMORY?
• THE RETENTION OF INFORMATION OVER TIME
• PROCESSES: ENCODING, STORAGE, RETRIEVAL
1. ENCODING. INFORMATION GETS INTO
MEMORY;
2. STORAGE. RETENTION OF
INFORMATION OVER TIME;
3. RETRIEVAL. TAKING INFORMATION
OUT OF STORAGE.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• MEMORY
• ENCODING
1. REHEARSAL
2. DEEP PROCESSING
3. ELABORATION
4. CONSTRUCTING
IMAGES
5. ORGANIZATION
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• MEMORY
• ENCODING
REHEARSAL
CONSCIOUS REPETITION OF
INFORMATION OVER TIME TO INCREASE
THE LENGTH OF TIME IT STAYS IN
MEMORY
ROTE REPETITION OF INFORMATION
(WITHOUT IMPARTING ANY MEANING TO
IT) DOES NOT WORK WELL FOR
RETAINING INFORMATION OVER THE
LONG TERM
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• MEMORY
• ENCODING
DEEP PROCESSING
LEVELS OF PROCESSING THEORY (FERGUS CRAIK AND ROBERT
LOCKHART) STATES THAT WE CAN PROCESS INFORMATION IN
VARIETY OF LEVELS FROM SHALLOW TO DEEP WITH DEEPER
PROCESSING PRODUCING BETTER MEMORY
SHALLOW LEVEL: ANALYZING A STIMULUS’ SENSORY, PHYSICAL
FEATURE
INTERMEDIATE LEVEL: RECOGNIZE STIMULUS AND GIVE IT A LABEL
DEEPEST LEVEL: PROCESS INFORMATION SEMANTICALLY IN TERMS OF
ITS MEANING
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• MEMORY
• ENCODING
ELABORATION
REFERS TO EXTENSIVENESS OF INFORMATION IN THE PROCESS
OF ENCODING
EX. USE OF EXAMPLES BASED ON SELF-REFERENCE
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• MEMORY
• ENCODING
CONSTRUCTING IMAGES
MEMORIES ARE STORED IN
TWO WAYS (ALLAN PAIVIO)
1. VERBAL CODES
2. IMAGE CODE
USE OF IMAGERY TO
REMEMBER VERBAL
INFORMATION WORKS BETTER
FOR OLDER CHILDREN THAN
FOR YOUNGER
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• MEMORY
• ENCODING
ORGANIZATION
THE MORE INFORMATION IS PRESENTED IN ORGANIZE WAY THE
EASIER FOR STUDENTS TO REMEMBER
CHUNKING IS A BENEFICIAL ORGANIZATIONAL MEMORY STRATEGY
THAT INVOLVES GROUPING OR PACKING INFORMATION INTO
HIGHER-ORDER UNITS THAT CAN BE REMEMBERED AS SINGLE
UNITS.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• MEMORY
• STORAGE
CHILDREN REMEMBER SOME
INFO FOR: A) LESS THAN A
SECOND B)HALF A MINUTE
C)MINUTES, HOURS, YEARS
OR LIFETIME
TYPES OF MEMORY:
1. SENSORY MEMORY
2. SHORT-TERM MEMORY
3. LONG-TERM MEMORY
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• MEMORY
• STORAGE
SENSORY MEMORY
HOLDS INFORMATION FROM THE WORLD IN ITS ORIGINAL
SENSORY FORM FOR ONLY AN INSTANT, NOT MUCH LONGER
THAN THE BRIEF TIME
SOUNDS – SEVERAL SECONDS
VISUAL IMAGES- ONE-FOURTH OF A SECOND
STUDENT MUST ATTEND TO THE SENSORY INFORMATION THAT IS
IMPORTANT FOR LEARNING QUICKLY BEFORE IT FADES
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• MEMORY
• STORAGE
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY
 LIMITED-CAPACITY MEMORY SYSTEM IN WHICH
INFORMATION IS RETAINED AT LEAST 30 SEC UNLESS IT IS
REHEARSED OR OTHERWISE PROCESSED FURTHER, IN
WHICH CASE IT CAN BE RETAINED LONGER
 LIMITED IN CAPACITY BUT LONGER IN DURATION
 WORKING MEMORY (ALAN BADDELEY) IS A KIND OF MENTAL
WORKBENCH WHERE INFORMATION IS MANIPULATED AND
ASSEMBLED TO HELP US MAKE DECISIONS, SOLVE PROBLEMS,
AND COMPREHEND WRITTEN AND SPOKEN LANGUAGE.
 • MEMORY
• STORAGE
LONG-TERM MEMORY
HOLDS ENORMOUS AMOUNT OF
INFORMATION FOR A LONG PERIOD

APPROACHES OF TIME IN A RELATIVELY

PERMANENT FASHION
TO LEARNING Q
WHO WAS YOUR FIRST GRADE
TEACHER?
WHO WROTE THE PHIL NATIONAL
ANTHEM?
WHO WAS YOUR GRADE SIX SEATMATE?
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
LT

• MEMORY
• STORAGE Declarative Non Declarative
LONG-TERM MEMORY (CONTENT)
Explicit Implicit
Knowing what Knowing how

Episodic
events, episode Semantic
time facts, ideas,
emotion is more concepts
important
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING

• MEMORY
• STORAGE
REPRESENTING INFORMATION
1. NETWORK THEORY
2. SCHEMA THEORY
3. FUZZY TRACE THEORY
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
Network Theory
Describe how info in memory is organized
(hierarchical: concrete, abstract)
emphasize nodes (center)
• MEMORY
• STORAGE
REPRESENTING INFORMATION
1. NETWORK THEORY
2. SCHEMA THEORY
Representing
3. FUZZY TRACE THEORY
Information
in Memory

Schema Theory Fuzzy Trace Theory

we fit constructed information
into info that already exists in 1. verbatim memory trace
our mind (schema) 2. fuzzy trace or gist
APPROACHES TO LEARNING

• MEMORY
• RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING
• RETRIEVAL
• SEARCHING OUR STORE OF MEMORY TO FIND THE RELEVANT
INFORMATION
• SERIAL POSITION EFFECT. PRINCIPLE THAT RECALL IS BETTER FOR
ITEMS AT HE BEGINNING AND END OF A LIST THAN FOR ITEMS IN THE
MIDDLE. (PRIMACY/RECENCY EFFECT)
• ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLE. ASSOCIATIONS FORMED AT THE
TIME OF ENCODING OR LEARNING TEND TO BE EFFECTIVE
RETRIEVAL CUE.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• MEMORY
• RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING
• FORGETTING
1. CUE-DEPENDENT FORGETTING. RETRIEVAL FAILURE BECAUSE OF LACK
OF RETRIEVAL CUES.
2. INTERFERENCE THEORY. WE FORGET NOT BECAUSE WE LOSE MEMORIES
BUT RATHER BECAUSE OTHER INFORMATION GETS IN THE WAY OF WHAT
WE ARE TRYING TO REMEMBER.
3. DECAY THEORY. STATES THAT NEW LEARNING INVOLVES THE CREATION
OF NEUROCHEMICAL MEMORY TRACE WHICH WILL EVENTUALLY
DISINTEGRATE THUS PASSAGE OF TIME IS RESPONSIBLE FOR FORGETTING.

TRANSIENCE (DANIEL SCHACTER). FORGETTING THAT OCCURS WITH THE

PASSAGE OF TIME.
APPROACHES TO
LEARNING
• MEMORY
• STRATEGIES FOR HELPING STUDENTS IMPROVE THEIR
MEMORY
1. MOTIVATE STUDENTS TO REMEMBER MATERIAL BY
UNDERSTANDING IT RATHER THAN MEMORIZING IT (*NOT
EXPECTING VERBATIM TEXTBOOK RESPONSES ON
ASSESSMENTS);
2. REPEAT WITH VARIATION ON THE INSTRUCTIONAL
INFORMATION AND LINK EARLY AND OFTEN;
3. ASSIST STUDENTS IN ORGANIZING WHAT THEY PUT INTO
THEIR MEMORY;
4. TEACH MNEMONIC STRATEGIES. (RHYME, SONGS,
PHRASE, ACRONYMS, KEYWORD METHOD)
5. EMBED MEMORY-RELEVANT KNOWLEDGE IN YOUR
TEACHING.
APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• METACOGNITION
• INVOLVES COGNITION ABOUT COGNITION
• KNOWING ABOUT KNOWING
• METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE INVOLVES MONITORING AND
REFLECTING ON ONE’S CURRENT OR RECENT THOUGHTS
• METACOGNITIVE ACTIVITY OCCURS WHEN STUDENTS CONSCIOUSLY
ADAPT AND MANAGE THEIR THINKING STRATEGIES DURING PROBLEM
SOLVING AND PURPOSEFUL THINKING
• HELPS STUDENTS PERFORM MANY ACADEMIC TASKS MORE EFFECTIVELY
• THOUGHT TO STUDENTS TO HELP THEM SOLVE PROBLEMS
 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
• METACOGNITION
• GOOD INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
• MICHAEL PRESSLEY AND COLLEAGUES
• METACOGNITIVE MODEL
• METACOGNITIVE FACTORS: STRATEGIES, CONTENT KNOWLEDGE, MOTIVATION,
AND METACOGNITION
• STEPS:
1. CHILDREN ARE TAUGHT BY PARENTS AND TEACHERS TO USE A
PARTICULAR STRATEGIES;
2. TEACHERS MAY DEMONSTRATE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES IN
MULTIPLE STRATEGIES IN A PART. DOMAIN;
3. GENERAL STRATEGY KNOWLEDGE.