EE Com 314

Chapter 6:
Communications Receivers
Chapter 6: Communications Receivers
 6.1. Principles of Signal Reproduction
 6.2. Superheterodyne Receivers
 6.3. Frequency Conversion
 6.4. Intermediate Frequency and Images
 6.5. Noise
 6.6. Typical Receiver Circuits
 6.7. Receivers and Transceivers
6.1. Principles of Signal
Reproduction
Basic Principles of Signal
Reproduction
 A communication receiver must be able to identify and
select a desired signal from thousands of others present in
the frequency spectrum (selectivity) and to provide
sufficient amplification to recover the modulating signal
(sensitivity).
 A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired
signal in the RF spectrum and eliminate or at least greatly
attenuate all other signals. A receiver with good sensitivity
involves high circuit gain.
Selectivity
 Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using tuned circuits
and/or filters. The LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity;
filters, which are used later in the process, provide additional
selectivity.
 Q and Bandwidth.
In receivers, initial selectivity is typically achieved using LC tuned
circuits, where the Q (Quality Factor) of the resonant circuit is
controlled to set the desired selectivity.
The goal is to have an optimum bandwidth that is wide enough
to pass the signal and its sidebands but narrow enough to
attenuate signals on adjacent frequencies.
Selectivity
While increasing the Q improves attenuation steepness,
there's a limit as excessive narrowing can lead to loss of
information. The ideal selectivity curve with perfectly vertical
sides is unattainable with tuned circuits.
Improved selectivity involves cascading tuned circuits or using
crystal, ceramic, or Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) filters. At
lower frequencies, digital signal processing (DSP) can provide
almost ideal response curves, and a combination of these
methods is employed in communication receivers.
Selectivity
 Shape Factor
The sides of a tuned circuit response curve
are known as skirts. The steepness of the
skirts, or the skirt selectivity, of a receiver is
expressed as the shape factor.
The lower the shape factor, the steeper the
skirts and the better the selectivity
Shape factors approaching 1 can be
achieved with DSP filters.
Sensitivity
 crucial for picking up weak signals, relies on overall gain
achieved through multiple amplification stages
 A higher gain means better sensitivity, requiring smaller
input signals. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is vital, as noise
can mask desired signals. Sensitivity is measured by the
Minimum Discernible Signal (MDS) and expressed in dBm,
microvolts, or decibels above 1 mV or 1 mW.
 Lower sensitivity figures, like 1 μV, indicate better
performance. Good communication receivers typically have
sensitivities of 0.2 to 1 μV, while consumer AM/FM
receivers have lower sensitivity.
The Simplest Receiver
Configuration
 a crystal set consisting of a tuned
circuit, a diode (crystal) detector,
and earphones. The tuned circuit
provides the selectivity, the diode
and C2 serve as an AM
demodulator, and the earphones
reproduce the recovered audio
signal.
6.2. Superheterodyne Receivers
Superheterodyne Receivers
 converts all incoming signals to a lower frequency, known as the
intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of amplifiers
and filters is used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity and
selectivity
 RF Amplifiers
also known as low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), provide initial gain and
selectivity to weak radio signals received by the antenna.
sometimes referred to as preselectors because they offer initial
gain and selectivity to incoming signals.
Using RF amplifiers is generally preferred as they improve
sensitivity, selectivity, and the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). They also
minimize oscillator radiation, reducing interference to nearby
receivers.
Superheterodyne Receivers
 Mixers and Local Oscillators
The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the
mixer. The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator
or frequency synthesizer. The mixer output is the input signal,
the local oscillator signal, and the sum and difference
frequencies of these signals.
The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can
be adjusted over a relatively wide range. As the local-oscillator
frequency is changed, the mixer translates a wide range of
input frequencies to the fixed IF.
Superheterodyne Receivers
 IF Amplifiers
The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same
modulation that appeared on the input RF signal. This signal
is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages, and most of
the receiver gain is obtained in these stages.
IF amplifi ers are easier to design and good selectivity is
easier to obtain. Crystal, ceramic, or SAW filters are used in
most IF sections to obtain good selectivity.
Some forms or receivers use DSP filters for selectivity.
Superheterodyne Receivers
 Demodulators
The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the
demodulator, or detector, which recovers the original
modulating information. The demodulator may be a diode
detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM), or a product
detector (for SSB).
 Superheterodyne Receivers
 Automatic Gain Control
The demodulator's output represents the original signal, its
amplitude proportional to the received signal. An Automatic
Gain Control (AGC) circuit rectifies and filters this AC
signal into a DC voltage, adjusting the gain of IF and RF
amplifiers. AGC ensures a consistent output voltage across
a broad range of RF signal levels, preventing distortion
from strong signals. In superheterodyne receivers, AGC
manages the dynamic range of signal amplitudes at the
antenna. It automatically adjusts gain: reducing it for high-
amplitude signals to prevent distortion and maintaining
high gain for weak signals to ensure reliable reception.
6.3. Frequency Conversion
Frequency Conversion
 is the process of translating a modulated signal to a higher
or lower frequency while retaining all the originally
transmitted information
 In radio receivers, high-frequency radio signals are
regularly converted to a lower, intermediate frequency,
where improved gain and selectivity can be obtained. This
is called down conversion.
 In satellite communications, the original signal is generated
at a lower frequency and then converted to a higher
frequency for transmission. This is called up conversion.
Mixing Principles
 Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation or analog
multiplication carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function
performed by the mixer is called heterodyning.
 In a mixer circuit for frequency translation, two inputs, the signal to be
translated (fs) and the local oscillator sine wave (fo), undergo mathematical
multiplication, akin to an amplitude modulator. The output contains the carrier
signal and sidebands formed during the mixing process. Filtering is
employed to select the desired signal, either the sum or difference frequency,
while rejecting unwanted signals. The choice between sum and difference
frequencies depends on whether the translation is to a higher or lower
frequency, determined by the local oscillator frequency. Examples include an
FM radio receiver where a local oscillator at 96.4 MHz translates a 107.1
MHz signal to a 10.7 MHz intermediate frequency (IF). The mixing process
spans the entire input spectrum, enabling frequency conversion for various
applications.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
 Any diode or transistor can be used to create a mixer
circuit, but most modern mixers are sophisticated ICs.
 Diode Mixers.
widely employed in microwave applications, showcase
nonlinearity as their primary characteristic. These mixers
leverage devices like diode modulators, where the input signal
and local oscillator signal are linearly added and applied to a
diode.
The diode mixer's effectiveness, simplicity, and nonlinear
properties make it a prevalent choice in microwave
applications, especially in RF amplifiers or receivers where
signals directly come from the antenna.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
 Doubly Balanced Mixer.
The doubly balanced mixer, a version of the diode balanced
modulator, stands out as one of the best mixers, particularly
for VHF, UHF, and microwave frequencies.
This mixer achieves exceptional local oscillator suppression
through precision-wound transformers and matched diodes,
resulting in substantial attenuation (50 to 60 dB or more) in
commercial products.
The doubly balanced mixer's superior characteristics make it a
preferred choice for mixing applications in high-frequency
ranges.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
 FET Mixers
FETs make good mixers because they provide gain, have low
noise, and offer a nearly perfect square-law response.
The FET mixer is biased so that it operates in the nonlinear
portion of its range. The input signal is applied to the gate,
and the local oscillator signal is coupled to the source. Again,
the tuned circuit in the drain selects the difference frequency.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
 IC Mixers
IC mixers like the NE602/SA612, operating up to 500 MHz,
utilize a Gilbert transconductance cell design with bipolar
transistors. Housed in an 8-pin DIP, these mixers employ a
doubly balanced circuit to suppress internal oscillator and
input signals, leaving only sum and difference signals in the
output.
The on-chip NPN transistor facilitates stable oscillation, and
external components set the operating frequency. Output,
either balanced or single-ended, requires a filter for signal
selection. A typical circuit includes an input resonant
transformer, external components for frequency control, and a
bandpass filter for selectivity, providing an amplified output
suitable for demodulation.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
 Image Reject Mixer
Image reject mixers, utilizing Gilbert cell mixers in a
configuration resembling a phasing-type SSB generator, are
employed in scenarios intolerant to image interference in
superheterodyne receivers. When conventional measures fail,
these mixers effectively eliminate unwanted images,
particularly in critical applications such as modern UHF and
microwave IC receivers.
Local Oscillators
 The local oscillator signal for the mixer comes from either a
conventional LC tuned oscillator such as a Colpitts or Clapp
circuit or a frequency synthesizer.
 The simpler continuously tuned receivers use an LC
oscillator. Channelized receivers use frequency
synthesizers.
Frequency Synthesizers
 Modern receiver designs commonly incorporate frequency
synthesizers, especially those using phase-locked loop (PLL)
configurations.
 These synthesizers offer key benefits, such as enhanced stability
through synchronization with a crystal oscillator reference.
 Tuning is achieved by adjusting the frequency division ratio
within the PLL, allowing incremental frequency changes, aligning
well with channelized communication needs.
 The inclusion of mixers and additional techniques, like
prescalers, addresses challenges associated with very high-
frequency PLL synthesizers. A practical example demonstrates
how PLL-controlled synthesizers maintain locked conditions
while achieving incremental tuning, showcasing their widespread
use in various receiver applications.
6.4. Intermediate Frequency and
Images
Intermediate Frequency and Images
 When designing radio receivers, achieving good
selectivity is crucial. This is best achieved at lower
frequencies, especially with traditional LC tuned circuits or
active RC filters.
 Using a low Intermediate Frequency (IF) has design
advantages, offering stability and high gain. However, it
introduces challenges like image interference, where
unwanted signals spaced at twice the IF above or below the
desired frequency can be problematic.
 The choice of IF impacts the trade-offs between circuit
stability, feedback, and interference issues.
Intermediate Frequency and Images
Frequency Relationships and
Images
 In a superheterodyne receiver, the relationship between
frequencies is crucial for proper operation. The local
oscillator frequency is typically set higher than the incoming
signal frequency by the Intermediate Frequency (IF).
 However, the local oscillator frequency could also be lower
than the incoming signal frequency by an amount equal to
the IF. The key is to ensure that the mixer produces the
desired difference frequency (IF).
 The challenge arises when an undesired signal (image)
appears at the input, producing the same IF. This potential
overlap of frequencies can lead to image interference,
necessitating careful design considerations to mitigate such
issues in crowded radio frequency environments.
Solving the Image Problem
 the IF is made as high as possible for
effective elimination of the image problem,
yet low enough to prevent design problems.
 In most receivers, the IF varies in proportion
to the frequencies that must be covered. At
low frequencies, low values of IF are used
Dual-Conversion Receivers
 Another way to obtain selectivity while eliminating the
image problem is to use a dual-conversion
superheterodyne receiver.
Direct Conversion Receivers
 A special version of the superheterodyne
 Also known as zero-IF (ZIF) receiver
 They perform the demodulation of the signal as part of the
translation.

Low IF Receiver
 An alternative to a direct conversion receiver
 Used to mitigate or eliminate the LO leakage and dc output
problems.
Software-Defined Radio
 is a receiver in which most of the functions are performed
by a digital signal processor.
 benefits of SDRs are improved performance and flexibility
 can be changed by downloading or switching to a new
processing program that the DSP can execute
6.5. Noise
Noise
a random mix of frequencies and amplitudes that
interferes with radio or information signals
 manifests as hiss or static in receivers between
stations and can distort TV screens
 In digital data transmission, noise causes bit errors
and information loss. Factors like temperature,
bandwidth, current flow, circuit gain, and resistance
influence noise levels. Reducing noise involves
using low-gain circuits, low current, low resistance,
and narrow bandwidths.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
 signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, also designated SNR, indicates
the relative strengths of the signal and the noise in a
communication system. The stronger the signal and the
weaker the noise, the higher the S/N ratio.
External Noise
External noise comes from sources over which we have little or
no control— industrial, atmospheric, or space
White noise – noise containing all frequencies, varying
randomly
 Industrial Noise. - produced by manufactured equipment,
such as automotive ignition systems, electric motors, and
generators
 Atmospheric noise – static; electrical disturbances that
occur naturally in the earth’s atmosphere are another source
of noise
External Noise
 Extraterrestrial noise, solar and cosmic, comes from
sources in space. One of the primary sources of
extraterrestrial noise is the sun, which radiates a wide range
of signals in a broad noise spectrum.
Noise generated by stars outside our solar system is generally
known as cosmic noise.
Internal Noise
 although it is low level, is often great enough to interfere
with weak signals
 main sources of internal noise in a receiver are thermal
noise, semiconductor noise, and intermodulation distortion
 Thermal Noise.
Most internal noise is caused by a phenomenon known as
thermal agitation, the random motion of free electrons in a
conductor caused by heat. Thermal agitation is often referred
to as white noise or Johnson noise, after J. B. Johnson
Internal Noise
 The amount of open-circuit noise voltage appearing across
a resistor or the input impedance to a receiver can be
calculated according to Johnson’s formula
Example
What is the open-circuit noise
voltage across a 100-kohm
resistor over the frequency
range of direct current to 20 kHz
at room temperature (25°C)?
Example
The bandwidth of a receiver
with a 75-ohm input resistance
is 6 MHz. The temperature is
29°C. What is the input thermal
noise voltage?
 Thermal noise can also be computed as a power level.
Johnson’s formula is then

 Where Pn is the average noise power in watts.

Example
What is the average noise
power of a device operating at a
temperature of 90°F with a
bandwidth of 30 kHz?
k is 1.38x10^-23
Internal Noise
 Semiconductor Noise
Most common example is shot noise.
Is produced by the not direct and nonlinear flow of current in a
semiconductor.
It can also be produced by the random movement of electrons
or holes across a PN junction.
Internal Noise
 Intermodulation Distortion
results from the generation of new signals and harmonics
caused by circuit nonlinearities.
Because of the predictable correlation between the known
frequencies and the noise, intermodulation distortion is also
called correlated noise.
Expressing Noise Levels
 Noise factor - is the ratio of the S/N power at the input to
the S/N power at the output.
Example
An RF amplifier has an S/N
ratio of 8 at the input and an S/N
ratio of 6 at the output. What are
the noise factor and noise
figure?
Expressing Noise Levels
Noise Temperature TN
Most of the noise produced in a device is thermal noise, which
is directly proportional to temperature. Therefore, another way
to express the noise in an amplifier or receiver is in terms of
noise temperature
Expressing Noise Levels
 SINAD
the composite signal plus the noise and distortion divided by
noise and distortion contributed by the receiver

The SINAD ratio is also used to express the sensitivity of a

receiver. Note that the SINAD ratio makes no attempt to
discriminate between or to separate noise and distortion signals.
Noise in Cascaded Stages
 The formula used to calculate the overall noise
performance of a receiver or of multiple stages of RF
amplification, called Friis’ formula
Example
6.6. Typical Receiver Circuits
Typical Receiver Circuits

 These are RF and IF amplifiers, AGC and AFC

circuits, and other special circuits found in
receivers.
RF Input Amplifiers
 Also known as Low-Noise Amplifier (LNA), is a critical component
in communication receivers, enhancing weak signals with low-
noise components for a high Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N ratio).
 LNAs, like MOSFETs or MESFETs, ensure low noise, with
MESFETs offering high gain at very high frequencies. In specific
applications, the RF amplifier is omitted, and the antenna
connects directly to the mixer through tuned circuits.
 Cascode amplifiers, overcome limitations like Miller capacitance
in single-stage RF amplifiers, providing higher gains (40 dB or
more) and stability, especially in integrated-circuit cell phones and
wireless receivers using various transistor technologies, including
silicon CMOS, BiCMOS, and SiGe bipolar transistors.
IF Amplifiers
 Most of the gain and selectivity in a
superheterodyne receiver are obtained in
the IF amplifier, and choosing the right IF is
critical to good design. However, today most
receivers are of the direct conversion type
with I and Q mixers, so no IF stages are
used. However, some conventional
superheterodyne receivers are still used.
IF Amplifiers
 Traditional IF Amplifier Circuits
These are tuned class A amplifiers, akin to RF amplifiers,
characterized by a gain ranging from 10 to 30 dB.
Typically, a receiver employs two or more IF amplifiers to achieve
the necessary overall gain. In a classic two-stage IF amplifier circuit,
single-stage BJT, JFET, or MOSFET transistors or a differential
amplifier are commonly used.
Traditional designs often utilized transformer-coupled resonant LC
tuned circuits as filters. However, modern wireless applications favor
crystal, ceramic, or SAW filters for superior selectivity, as they are
more compact, provide higher selectivity, and require no tuning or
adjustment. Advanced communication receivers now also integrate
DSP filters to routinely enhance selectivity in IF amplification.
IF Amplifiers
 Limiters
In FM receivers, some IF amplifier stages serve as limiters to
remove amplitude variations in the FM signal before
demodulation. Typically, these limiters are regular class A IF
amplifiers. Any strong input signal can turn an amplifier into a
limiter by causing the transistor to alternate between
saturation and cutoff, flattening or clipping the signal's peaks.
The limiter's key is setting the initial base bias level for
symmetric clipping, with differential amplifiers preferred. The
output, initially a square wave with undesirable harmonics, is
filtered back into a sine wave by the output filter.
Controlling Circuit Gain
 1. The gain can be decreased by decreasing the
collector current. An AGC circuit that decreases the
current flowing in the amplifier to decrease the gain
is called reverse AGC.
 2.The gain can be reduced by increasing the
collector current. As the signal gets stronger, the
AGC voltage increases; this increases the base
current and, in turn, increases the collector current,
reducing the gain. This method of gain control is
known as forward AGC.
Squelch Circuits
 Found in most communications receivers
 Also called a muting circuit
 is used to keep the receiver audio turned off until an RF
signal appears at the receiver input.
 Noise-derived squelch circuits, typically used in FM
receivers, amplify the high-frequency background noise
when no signal is present and use it to keep the audio
turned off.
 Continuous Tone-Control Squelch System, A more
sophisticated form of squelch; its purpose is to provide
some communication privacy on a particular channel.
Squelch Circuits
 Digital coded squelch (DCS), are available in some
modern receivers. These systems transmit a serial binary
code along with the audio.
6.7. Receivers and Transceivers
VHF Aircraft Communication Circuit
 The VHF aircraft communication circuit is designed for
two-way communication in the 118-135 MHz range
using amplitude modulation. It utilizes discrete
components and ICs for signal reception, frequency
tuning, IF filtering, and demodulation. The key
components include an RF amplifier, a balanced mixer
with a local oscillator, and IF amplifiers with AGC
circuitry. The demodulated audio signal is processed
through amplifiers and drives a power amplifier for the
speaker. The circuit incorporates AGC for signal control
and a squelch mechanism to mute the receiver in the
absence of a strong signal.
SDR Communications Receiver
 The SDR-IQ is a modern shortwave/amateur radio receiver
using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. Designed
for use with a PC, it covers 500 kHz to 30 MHz, supporting
various signal types. The receiver's front-end selects
frequency ranges, and an Analog Devices AD8370 amplifier
provides digitally adjustable gain for AGC. The processed
signals go through an AD9245 digitizer and AD6620 digital
signal processor. A microcontroller manages key functions,
while the PC handles demodulation, FFT analysis, and
graphical display of signal conditions. The USB interface
connects the receiver to the PC for processing and control.
The display includes FFT frequency analysis and a waterfall
display for real-time signal strength visualization.