THE CONCEPT OF

PHILOSOPHY
Etymologically, the term philosophy has
been derived from two Greek words “philos
(philein or philia)” which means love of or
search for, and “Sophia” which means
wisdom (Deleuze and Guatteri, 1994). Thus,
philosophy can be interpreted as the love of
or pursuit of wisdom.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

THE CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY
 However, loving of wisdom does not make a
person a philosopher. This means that,
becoming a philosopher does not only entail
love of wisdom but also going beyond love of
wisdom. Indeed, one should engage
personally in synthesizing, speculation,
prescription and analysis of the universe.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

THE CONCEPT OF PHILOSOPHY
 Nyirenda and Ishumi (2006, p. 6) contend
that the term philosophy can be viewed in
three perspectives: as an activity, as a set of
attitudes and as a body of knowledge.
Though, philosophy can also be observed as
an academic discipline.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

PHILOSOPHY AS AN ACTIVITY
 Philosophy as an activity focuses on the
doings of philosophers such as synthesizing,
speculation, prescription and analysis.
Initially, in synthesis, the concern of
philosopher is to provide easier and
comprehensive understanding of the world
we live in. For example, the meaning of the
universe and things that constitutes the
universe (Nyirenda and Ishumi, 2006; Richard
et al, 2010).

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 Secondly, speculation, involves the mental
process that entails the armchair thinking of
everything in the universe. speculation is a
crucial function of philosophy because some
matters of human existence are beyond the
scope of the most academic disciplines and
no sufficient details to account for them.
Thus, speculation fills the gap of the limited
available knowledge. For example,
speculation can be on seeking the answer on
the question - does God exist?
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Cont….
 On the other hand prescription, seek to
establish norms and standards of
performance and conduct. Basically,
prescription set out the goals and ideas to
guide practices as well as criteria for
evaluating achievements of the goals.
Prescriptive expressions are in the form of
how people “ought to” act or react in a given
situation and entails aesthetic judgments or
moral alternatives.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont….
 Prescription also deal with issues such as
what is good and what is bad; what is right
and what is wrong; what is beautiful and what
is ugly. In education context, the implication
of prescription is obvious when the teacher
set out objectives for a lesson, standards of
pass or fail in exams. In addition to that, it is
applicable in setting goals and objectives of
education as whole.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont….
 philosophy as an activity of analyzing
involves examining use of language in an
effort to elucidate what is being said.
Basically, philosophical activity of analyzing
entails scrutinizing words used and
statements made. Indeed, it examines words
such as intelligence, motivation, good and
self-reliance just to list few. In addition to
that, logical examination of arguments
involving testing of premises on which
conclusion rely.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Philosophy as an attitude
 In the context of philosophy as an attitude,
three things are emphasized, namely
awareness of our biases, desire for
completeness and openness to learning.
Awareness focuses on the assessment of the
impacts of our statements on our view of
reality. For example, in education context, a
teacher might come in the classroom with
assumptions regarding the meaning of
education and what educating processes
ought to be.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Philosophy as an attitude
 Though, some of these assumptions or ideas
might be right on one hand while on the
other hand other ideas might be wrong.
Therefore, philosophy as an attitude stresses
on self awareness and honest examination of
our biases, assumptions and prejudices in
trying to understand reality

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Philosophy as an attitude
 The ultimate purpose of the desire for
completeness is to change the situation
basing on the available sufficient evidences.
In education context, the desire for
completeness is the lifelong learning that is
grounded on the assumption that acquiring
knowledge is endless process.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Philosophy as a content
 Unlike the above definitions of philosophy that
explain the meaning of philosophy basing on
the activities and attitudes, philosophy as
content focuses on what philosophy is consist
of. In this sense, philosophy is expressed as the
study of fundamental questions. The answers
for those questions are attained basing on the
dimension of the nature of reality, truth, value
and correct reasoning. Essentially, the
questions asked are determinant of the content
or the subject matter of philosophy

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Philosophy as a content
 Philosophy as a content relies on four
classification of questions, namely; questions
on reality, truth, value and reasoning. Basing
on these questions, philosophers ask “what is
real?” “what is truth?” “what is value?” and
“what is rational?” More importantly, the
classification of four questions above make
up four branches of philosophy, namely,
metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and
logic

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Philosophy as a discipline
 As an academic discipline philosophy refers
to an educational subject or discipline that
exercises reason and logic in an attempt to
understand the nature of reality as well as
seeking answers to fundamental questions
about knowledge, life, morality and human
nature. For example, the roots of the physical
science disciplines such as physics and
geology can be traced back to ancient
philosophy

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Philosophy as a body of knowledge
 Aristotle defines philosophy as the way to
access knowledge. Further, Aristotle declares
that this knowledge is acquired through
logical and structured thinking. However, in
order to understand the way knowledge is
accessed philosophically, one must first
understand the difference between
knowledge and belief.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Philosophy as a body of knowledge
 In fact, knowledge is the product of a
questioning process which provides clear
answers. It is through natural sciences that
we can study empirical knowledge basing on
sensory experiences. On the other hand,
beliefs are obsessions that answer questions
that do not have a clear or obvious solution

Chuwa, E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
1. Epistemology;
 Nyirenda and Ishumi, (2006) contend that,

the term epistemology has been derived from

two Greek words – episteme and logos which
literally means “the theory of knowledge”.
Basically, epistemology is the aspect of
philosophy that examines the nature, source
and validity of knowledge

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

1. Epistemology
 Epistemology inquires about answering basic
questions on how human beings observe the
world and gain knowledge about it. The more
important questions include: “is there an
eternal world?”, “how does memory work?”,
“how can we know that our memories are
genuine?”, “What is the nature of perception?”

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

1. Epistemology
 Other questions include: “to what extent does
current knowledge affect future perception?”,
“what knowledge is inherent to humans and
what is learned after birth?”, and “can new
facts be assimilated without innate concepts?”
Generally, the central focus of epistemology
is whether or not reality can be known.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Sources of Knowledge
 The five sources of knowledge introduced by
(Nyirenda and Ishumi (2006) include;
empirical knowledge, revealed knowledge,
authoritative knowledge, rational knowledge
and intuitive knowledge

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

a) Empirical Knowledge
 Empirical knowledge is a kind of knowledge
derived from the senses (through seeing,
hearing, testing, and feeling). In other words,
empirical knowledge or posteriori knowledge
is propositional knowledge obtained by
experience or sensorial information.
Posteriori knowledge is a contrast to priori
knowledge, which is knowledge that is gained
through the innate ideas, intuition or pure
reason.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

a) Empirical Knowledge
 Indeed, for empiricists, the mind is a "blank
slate" (tabula rasa) to be filled with
knowledge obtained through practically
verifiable and most reliable means. They
believe that when we learn or experience
things, it is as if the mind is being written on

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

a) Empirical Knowledge
 Empirical knowledge has been criticized of
relying on source of data that is imperfect
because of being incomplete and
undependable. Also, this source of
knowledge is susceptible of being influenced
by the physical conditions such as sickness,
fatigue, and frustrations that may affect
sensory perceptions

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

b) Revealed Knowledge
 Revealed knowledge, or revelation, is that
body of knowledge that exists independent of
human conception. It is that knowledge
which is inherent in the creation; it is
something that is formulated from creation.
In other words, revealed knowledge is that
special knowledge with which this universe,
and preceding universes, and universes in the
making, and universes yet to be made are
formed, sustained, and ultimately dissolved.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

b) Revealed Knowledge
 Essentially, revealed knowledge is absolute
and uncontaminated. Though it has been
criticized that revealed truth is subjective to
human interpretation. In addition, revealed
knowledge has also been criticized by
empiricists that it cannot be proved or
disapproved empirically

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

c) Authoritative Knowledge
 Authoritative knowledge is a kind of information
from people with authority or experts. For
example, teachers, doctors, priests and parents
are claimed to be source of authoritative
knowledge. This source of information saves the
time as it brings knowledge to all without
involving personal search and verification of that
particular information or knowledge claims.
Authoritative knowledge is valid if it is correct,
but, if built upon the basis of mistaken
supposition then that knowledge is susceptible
of being invalid and possibly distorted.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
d) Rational Knowledge
 Rational knowledge involves collection of
facts, generalizations, and reasons out from
causes to effects, from effects to causes,
from premises to conclusions and from
propositions to proofs. It concludes, decides
and comes to final judgment. In other words,
rational knowledge is derived from reasoning.
Rational knowledge relies on the ability of
human thoughts and minds on contributing
knowledge.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

e) Intuitive Knowledge
 Intuition is personal spiritual experience. The knowledge
obtained through the functioning of the causal body is
intuitive knowledge. It is also called supermind or
supramental consciousness. Since intuitive knowledge
does not involve reasoning process at all, this kind of
knowledge comes automatically as a flash insight.
 Intuition transcends reason but does not contradict it.
Intuition is divine vision – it is the eye of wisdom that
enables us to leap over the limitations of human
experience. Spiritual flashes and glimpses of truth,
inspiration, revelation and spiritual insight come through
intuition. Thus, the mind has to be pure for one to know
that it is the intuition that is functioning at a particular
moment

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

2. Ontology
 The term ontology can simply be defined as
the study of being or existence. In other
words, according to (Tashakkori & Teddlie,
2008) ontology is the study of
conceptualization. In research, the
ontological question seeks to identify the
structure and character of reality and thus, it
reveals about the content of the known. As
observed by Richards, (2003) ontology
engages our conceptions about the nature of
reality and what exists in the physical world.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
3. Axiology
 In its etymological sense, the term “axiology”
has been derived from two Greek words;
Axios meaning ‘worth or value’ and logos
meaning logic or theory” (Arora, 2010).
 Basically, axiology is a philosophical aspect

that examines the general theory of values.

Thus, axiology focuses on analyzing various
methods used in research. Axiology has two
sub-divisions, namely, ethics and aesthetics.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Ethics
 Ethics as the study of the social systems and
traditional norms as revealed in the lives of a
particular social groups. However, the focus
of study is on society moral values and the
conducts of people with systematic analysis
of the principles and problems of morality.
Ethics deals with questions such as; what is
the standard by which a thing is judged? What
is good conduct? And what is good life for all
people?

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Aesthetics
 Aesthetics is a sub branch of axiology
concerning with values in the realm of beauty.
Basically, it deals with issues associated with
the nature of artistic beauty, conditions and
standards of evaluating art for example music,
literature and visual art. Aesthetics deals with
several major questions, for instance; what is
art and what is its purpose? What is beauty?
Where does beauty reside? Is the beauty in the
eye of the beholder or is it in the thing that is
being observed?

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

GROUP ASSIGNMENT
1. Discuss the implication of epistemology and
ontology in education
2. Identify the usefulness of logic and ethics in
teachers education
3. a) What is metaphysics?
b) Analyze the essence of metaphysics in
education.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

 Philosophy of Education
In brief, it is a philosophical process of solving educational
problems through philosophical method, from a
philosophical attitude to arrive at philosophical conclusions
and results. Thus, it aims at achieving general as well as
comprehensive results.
Therefore,
1] Philosophy of education is the criticism of the
general theory of education.
2] It consist of critical evaluation and systematic
reflection upon general theories.
3] It is a synthesis of educational facts with
educational values. CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 34
The Scope of Philosophy of
Education
 The scope of philosophy of education is confined to the field
of education. Thus, it is philosophy in the field of education.
The scope of philosophy of education is concerned with the
problems of education. These problems mainly include –
 Interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe
and their relation with man,
 Interpretation of aims and ideals of education,
 The relationship of various components of the system of
education,
 Relationship of education and various areas of national life
[economic system, political order, social progress, cultural
reconstructions etc.],
 Educational values,
 Theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.
CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 35
The Scope of Philosophy of
Education
 The above mentioned problems constitute the
scope of philosophy of education and explain its
nature. Thus, the scope of philosophy of
education includes following;
a) Aims and Ideals of Education Philosophy
b) Interpretation of Human Nature
c) Educational Values
d) Theory of Knowledge
e) Relationship of education and various area
of national life and various components of the
system of education

CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 36
Functions of Philosophy of Education
i. Determining the aims of education.
Philosophy of education provides original
ideas regarding all aspects of education
particularly educational aims. It is said that
educational philosophy gives different views,
but this situation is not harmful, rather it
helps in providing education according to the
need of society.

CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 37
Functions of Philosophy of Education
ii. Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of
education
 In the process of social development the old traditions

become outdated for the people. They are replaced by

the new traditions. But this process of replacement is
not always smooth. It is faced with lots of opposition
from certain orthodox sections of the society. At the
same time it must be kept in mind that every 'old' is
not outdated and every 'new' is not perfect. Therefore,
there is a need of co-coordinating the two in order to
maintain the harmony between both. This function
can be performed by philosophy of education.

CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 38
Functions of Philosophy of Education
iii. Providing the educational planners,
administrators and educators with the
progressive vision to achieve educational
development:-
 Philosophy of education provides the
educational planners, administrators and
educators with the right vision which guides
them to attain the educational goals
efficiently.

CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 39
Functions of Philosophy of Education
iv. Preparing the young generation to face the
challenges of the modern time:-
 Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering

and liberating force that helps young people

to and society at large to face the challenges
of the modern time

CHUWA, E. I 03/12/2024 40
4. Logic
 Logic may be defined as the science of
reasoning. However, this is not to suggest
that logic is an empirical (i.e., experimental or
observational) science like physics, biology,
or psychology. Rather, logic is a non-
empirical science like mathematics.
 Also, in saying that logic is the science of

reasoning, we do not mean that it is

concerned with the actual mental (or physical)
process employed by a thinking entity when it
is reasoning.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Cont….
 The investigation of the actual reasoning process
falls more appropriately within the province of
psychology, neurophysiology, or cybernetics.
 Even if these empirical disciplines were
considerably more advanced than they presently
are, the most they could disclose is the exact
process that goes on in a being's head when he or
she (or it) is reasoning. They could not, however,
tell us whether the being is reasoning correctly or
incorrectly.
 Distinguishing correct reasoning from incorrect
reasoning is the task of logic.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

INFERENCES AND ARGUMENTS
 Reasoning is a special mental activity called
inferring, what can also be called making (or
performing) inferences. A useful and simple
definition of the word ‘infer’ can be stated as
to draw conclusion from premises.
 In place of word ‘premises’, you can also put:

‘data’, ‘information’, ‘facts’. Examples of

Inferences include the following:

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Example of Inferences
(1). You see smoke and infer that there is a
fire.
(2). You count 19 persons in a group that
originally had 20, and you infer that someone
is missing.
 Note carefully the difference between ‘infer’

and ‘imply’, which are sometimes confused.

We infer the fire on the basis of the smoke,
but we do not imply the fire.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont….
 The reasoning process may be thought of as
beginning with input (premises, data, etc.)
and producing output (conclusions). In each
specific case of drawing (inferring) a
conclusion C from premises P1, P2, P3, ...,
the details of the actual mental process (how
the "gears" work) is not the proper concern of
logic, but of psychology or neurophysiology.
The proper concern of logic is whether the
inference of C on the basis of P1, P2, P3, ... is
warranted (correct).
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Cont…
 Inferences are made on the basis of various
sorts of things – data, facts, information,
states of affairs etc. In order to simplify the
investigation of reasoning, logic treats all of
these things in terms of a single sort of thing
– statements. Logic correspondingly treats
inferences in terms of collections of
statements, which are called arguments.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Meaning of an argument
 An argument is a collection of statements,
one of which is designated as the conclusion,
and the remainder of which are designated as
the premises.
 Usually, the premises of an argument are

intended to support (justify) the conclusion of

the argument.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 Before giving some concrete examples of
arguments, it might be best to clarify a term
in the definition. The word ‘statement’ is
intended to mean declarative sentence. In
addition to declarative sentences, there are
also interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory sentences. The sentences that
make up an argument are all declarative
sentences; that is, they are all statements.
The following may be taken as the definition
of ‘statement’.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Definition of a statement
 A statement is a declarative sentence, which
is to say a sentence that is capable of being
true or false.
 The following are examples of statements;
 it is raining
 I am hungry
 2+2 = 4
 God exists

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 On the other hand the following are examples
of sentences that are not statements.
 are you hungry?
 shut the door, please
 #$%@!!!
 Observe that whereas a statement is capable

of being true or false, a question, or a

command, or an exclamation is not capable
of being true or false.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 Note that in saying that a statement is
capable of being true or false, we are not
saying that we know for sure which of the two
(true, false) it is. Thus, for a sentence to be a
statement, it is not necessary that humankind
knows for sure whether it is true, or whether
it is false. An example is the statement ‘God
exists’.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 Now let us get back to inferences and
arguments. Earlier, we discussed two
examples of inferences. Let us see how these
can be represented as arguments. In the case
of the smoke-fire inference, the
corresponding argument is given as follows.
 (a1) there is smoke (premise)
 therefore, there is fire (conclusion)

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 Here the argument consists of two
statements, ‘there is smoke’ and ‘there is
fire’. The term ‘therefore’ is not strictly
speaking part of the argument; it rather
serves to designate the conclusion (‘there is
fire’), setting it off from the premise (‘there is
smoke’). In this argument, there is just one
premise.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 In the case of the missing-person inference, the
corresponding argument is given as follows:
 (a2) there were 20 persons originally (premise)
 there are 19 persons currently (premise)
 therefore, someone is missing (conclusion)
 Here the argument consists of three statements
– ‘there were 20 persons originally’, ‘there are
19 persons currently’, and ‘someone is
missing’. Once again, ‘therefore’ sets off the
conclusion from the premises.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 In principle, any collection of statements can
be treated as an argument simply by
designating which statement in particular is
the conclusion. However, not every collection
of statements is intended to be an argument.
We accordingly need criteria by which to
distinguish arguments from other collections
of statements.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 There are no hard and fast rules for telling when a
collection of statements is intended to be an
argument, but there are a few rules of thumb.
Often an argument can be identified as such
because its conclusion is marked. We have already
seen one conclusion-marker – the word
‘therefore’. Besides ‘therefore’, there are other
words that are commonly used to mark
conclusions of arguments, including
‘consequently’, ‘hence’, ‘thus’, ‘so’, and ‘ergo’.
Usually, such words indicate that what follows is
the conclusion of an argument

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont..
 Other times an argument can be identified as
such because its premises are marked. Words
that are used for this purpose include: ‘for’,
‘because’, and ‘since’. For example, using the
word ‘for’, the smoke-fire argument (a1)
earlier can be rephrased as follows.
 (a1′) there is fire
 for there is smoke
 Note that in (a1′) the conclusion comes
before the premise.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 Other times neither the conclusion nor the
premises of an argument are marked, so it is
harder to tell that the collection of statements
is intended to be an argument. A general rule
of thumb applies in this case, as well as in
previous cases.
 In an argument, the premises are intended to

support (justify) the conclusion.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

DEDUCTIVE LOGIC VERSUS
INDUCTIVE LOGIC
 Let us go back to the two arguments from the
previous section.
 (a1) there is smoke;
 therefore, there is fire.
 (a2) there were 20 people originally;
 there are 19 persons currently;
 therefore, someone is missing.
 There is an important difference between

these two inferences, which corresponds to a

division of logic into two branches.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 On the one hand, we know that the existence
of smoke does not guarantee (ensure) the
existence of fire; it only makes the existence
of fire likely or probable. Thus, although
inferring fire on the basis of smoke is
reasonable, it is nevertheless fallible. Insofar
as it is possible for there to be smoke without
there being fire, we may be wrong in
asserting that there is a fire.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Inductive Logic
 The investigation of inferences of this sort is
traditionally called inductive logic. Inductive
logic investigates the process of drawing
probable (likely, plausible) though fallible
conclusions from premises. Another way of
stating this: inductive logic investigates
arguments in which the truth of the premises
makes likely the truth of the conclusion.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Inductive Logic
 Inductive logic is a very difficult and intricate
subject, partly because the practitioners
(experts) of this discipline are not in complete
agreement concerning what constitutes
correct inductive reasoning.
 Inductive reasoning is often called statistical

(or probabilistic) reasoning, and forms the

basis of experimental science. Inductive
reasoning is important to science

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Deductive Logic
 Consider argument (a2) above. In this
argument, if the premises are in fact true,
then the conclusion is certainly also true; or,
to state things in the subjunctive mood, if the
premises were true, then the conclusion
would certainly also be true.
 Still another way of stating things: the truth
of the premises necessitates the truth of the
conclusion. The investigation of these sorts
of arguments is called deductive logic.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Note…
 The following should be noted. suppose that
you have an argument and suppose that the
truth of the premises necessitates
(guarantees) the truth of the conclusion. Then
it follows (logically) that the truth of the
premises makes likely the truth of the
conclusion. In other words, if an argument is
judged to be deductively correct, then it is
also judged to be inductively correct as well.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 The converse is not true: not every inductively
correct argument is also deductively correct;
the smoke fire argument is an example of an
inductively correct argument that is not
deductively correct. For whereas the
existence of smoke makes likely the
existence of fire it does not guarantee the
existence of fire.

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 In deductive logic, the task is to distinguish
deductively correct arguments from
deductively incorrect arguments. Nevertheless,
we should keep in mind that, although an
argument may be judged to be deductively
incorrect, it may still be reasonable, that is, it
may still be inductively correct.
 Some arguments are not inductively correct,
and therefore are not deductively correct
either; they are just plain unreasonable

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

5. Metaphysics
 Metaphysics is the philosophical investigation
of the ultimate nature of reality.
 Some Basic Types of Questions in
Metaphysics are relating to; reality as a
whole; (2) Questions concerning things that
must be true of absolutely everything that
exists; (3) Questions concerning possibilities
for existence; (4) Questions concerning
fundamental aspects of contingent things;
Questions concerning the nature of human
beings.
Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024
Cont…
 The Problem of Method in Metaphysics:
Science, especially physics, is concerned with
arriving at knowledge of the ultimate nature
of reality. How do the methods used in
metaphysics relate to, and differ from, the
methods used in science? Is metaphysics a
legitimate discipline, rather than pure
speculation, or armchair science

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024

Cont…
 4. distinguish between inductive and
deductive reasoning.
 5. What is metaphysics, and what is its

relation to education?

Chuwa E. I. (MNMA) 03/12/2024