Math 154, Week 8 Partial Fraction Decomposition

MATH 154 Week 8
Goals
• Decomposition into partial fractions

• Integration of rational functions
• Applications
Antiderivatives (lite version)
Integration of Rational Functions
by Partial Fractions
Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions
In this section we show how to integrate any rational function (a ratio of polynomials)
by expressing it as a sum of simpler fractions, called partial fractions, that we already
know how to integrate.
To illustrate the method, observe that by taking the fractions 2/(x – 1) and 1/(x + 2) to a
common denominator we obtain
5
If we now reverse the procedure, we see how to integrate the function on the right side
of this equation:
= 2 ln | x – 1 | – ln | x + 2 | + C
6
To see how the method of partial fractions works in general, let’s consider a rational
function
where P and Q are polynomials. It’s possible to express f as a sum of simpler fractions
provided that the degree of P is less than the degree of Q.
Such a rational function is called proper.
7
We know that if
P (x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + a0
where an ≠ 0, then the degree of P is n and we write deg(P) = n.
8
Linear and Quadratic Factors
9
We have seen that a polynomial factors completely into linear factors if we use complex
numbers.
If we don’t use complex numbers, then a polynomial with real coefficients can always
be factored into linear and quadratic factors.
We use this property when we study partial fractions. A quadratic polynomial with no
real zeros is called irreducible over the real numbers.
Such a polynomial cannot be factored without using complex numbers.
10
11
Example 7 – Factoring a Polynomial into Linear and Quadratic Factors
Let P (x) = x4 + 2x2 – 8.
(a) Factor P into linear and irreducible quadratic factors

with real coefficients.
(b) Factor P completely into linear factors with complex

coefficients.
Solution:
(a) P (x) = x4 + 2x2 – 8
= (x2 – 2)(x2 + 4)
12
Example 7 – Solution cont’d
= (x – )(x + )(x2 + 4)
The factor x2 + 4 is irreducible, since it has no real

zeros.
(b) To get the complete factorization, we factor the

remaining quadratic factor:
P (x) = (x – )(x + )(x2 + 4)
= (x – )(x + )(x – 2i)(x + 2i)
13
The next step is to factor the denominator Q (x) as far as possible.
It can be shown that any polynomial Q can be factored as a product of

 linear factors (of the form ax + b)
 irreducible quadratic factors (of the form ax2 + bx + c, where b2 – 4ac < 0).
For instance, if Q (x) = x4 – 16, we could factor it as
Q (x) = (x2 – 4)(x2 + 4) = (x – 2)(x + 2)(x2 + 4)
14
The third step is to express the proper rational function

R (x)/Q (x) (from Equation 1) as a sum of partial fractions of the form
or
A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do this. We explain the

details for the four cases that occur.
15
Case I The denominator Q (x) is a product of distinct linear factors.
This means that we can write
Q (x) = (a1x + b1)(a2x + b2) . . . (akx + bk)
where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of another).
16
In this case the partial fraction theorem states that there exist constants A1, A2, . . . , Ak
such that
These constants can be determined as in the following example.
17
Example
18
Example
19
Case II Q (x) is a product of linear factors, some of

which are repeated.
Suppose the first linear factor (a1x + b1) is repeated r times; that is, (a1x + b1)r occurs in
the factorization of Q (x). Then instead of the single term A1/(a1x + b1) in Equation 2, we
would use
20
By way of illustration, we could write
but we prefer to work out in detail a simpler example.
21
Example
22
Example
23
Case III Q (x) contains irreducible quadratic factors,

none of which is repeated.
If Q (x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 – 4ac < 0, then, in addition to the partial
fractions in Equations 2 and 7, the expression for R (x)/Q (x) will have a term of the form
where A and B are constants to be determined.
24
For instance, the function given by

f (x) = x/[(x – 2)(x2 + 1)(x2 + 4)] has a partial fraction decomposition of the form
The term given in (9) can be integrated by completing the square (if necessary) and
using the formula
25
Example
26
Example
27
Case IV Q (x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic

factor.
If Q (x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c)r, where b2 – 4ac < 0, then instead of the single
partial fraction (9), the sum
occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of R (x)/Q (x). Each of the terms in (11) can
be integrated by using a substitution or by first completing the square if necessary.
28
Example
29
Example
30
A combined example
Evaluate
Solution:
Let u = Then u2 = x + 4, so x = u2 – 4 and dx = 2u du.
Therefore
31
A combined example
We can evaluate this integral either by factoring u2 – 4 as (u – 2)(u + 2) and using
partial fractions or by using Formula 6 with a = 2:
32
Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions (Last case!)
If f is improper, that is, deg(P)  deg(Q), then we must take the preliminary step of
dividing Q into P (by long division) until a remainder R (x) is obtained such that
deg(R) < deg(Q).
33
The division statement is
where S and R are also polynomials.
As the next example illustrates, sometimes this preliminary step is all that is required.
34
Example 1
Find
Solution:
Since the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, we first
perform the long division.
This enables us to write
35
A reminder
36
37
END OF LECTURE

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MATH 154 Week 8

• Decomposition into partial fractions

P (x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + a0

where an ≠ 0, then the degree of P is n and we write deg(P) = n.

Such a polynomial cannot be factored without using complex numbers.

Let P (x) = x4 + 2x2 – 8.

(a) Factor P into linear and irreducible quadratic factors

(b) Factor P completely into linear factors with complex

The factor x2 + 4 is irreducible, since it has no real

(b) To get the complete factorization, we factor the

P (x) = (x – )(x + )(x2 + 4)

= (x – )(x + )(x – 2i)(x + 2i)

The next step is to factor the denominator Q (x) as far as possible.

It can be shown that any polynomial Q can be factored as a product of

For instance, if Q (x) = x4 – 16, we could factor it as

Q (x) = (x2 – 4)(x2 + 4) = (x – 2)(x + 2)(x2 + 4)

The third step is to express the proper rational function

A theorem in algebra guarantees that it is always possible to do this. We explain the

Case I The denominator Q (x) is a product of distinct linear factors.

This means that we can write

Q (x) = (a1x + b1)(a2x + b2) . . . (akx + bk)

where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of another).

These constants can be determined as in the following example.

Case II Q (x) is a product of linear factors, some of

By way of illustration, we could write

but we prefer to work out in detail a simpler example.

Case III Q (x) contains irreducible quadratic factors,

where A and B are constants to be determined.

For instance, the function given by

Case IV Q (x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic

The division statement is

where S and R are also polynomials.

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