CHAPTER 3

The Eukaryotes: Fungi, Algae,

Protozoa
Group 1:
Jhuvylyn Villacarlos Aureliano Labanes
Jerick Embocado Jose Valenzuela
Hershi Union Mark Kisen Desor
Argiene Deslate Arvin Jay Ongga

c.pxhere.com/photos/92/9b/forest_f
ungi_fungus_mushrooms_nature-118
 FUNG
I
c.pxhere.com/photos/92/9b/forest_f
ungi_fungus_mushrooms_nature-118
1460.jpg!d
 Fungi
 Fungi (singular: FUNGUS) can be
incredibly sophisticated multicellular
organism or single-celled critters.
 Mycology – study of fungi https://grocycle.com/how-to-grow-oyster-mushrooms/

 They are eukaryotes Schizophyllum commune

Split gill Fungus
 Are NOT plants and best in warm and
moist environment
 Found anywhere but majority of them
prefer to dwell on land, primarily in
soil or on plant matter, as opposed to
the sea or fresh water.
https://www.reddit.com/r/mycology/comments/12cu0i2/
schizophyllum_commune/?rdt=52568
Fungi exhibit diverse lifestyles:
Fungi
 decomposers or saprophytes,
 Parasites, and
 mutualistic symbionts.
Lichen Cordyceps:
a parasitic fungus that controls insects
and grows out of their bodies.

https://britishlichensociety.org.uk/learning/what-is-a-lichen
Lichen Fungi needs CARBON That is provided by the
algae and/or cyanobacteria https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Cordyceps-a-parasitic-fungus-that-controls-
insects-and-grows-out-of-their-bodies_fig4_342769346
 Fungi
The DECOMPOSERS are a group that thrives in the soil or on dead plant matter and is crucial to
the cycling of carbon and other elements.
Some are parasites of plants that spread illnesses like canker, rust, scabs, and mildew.
Powderly mildew
Apple scab Canker Diseases

Anthracnose https://www.familyhandyman.com/list/tree-diseases-and-what-to-do/
 Fungi
Fungal diseases in crops can cause the farmer to lose a lot of money. A very small percentage
of fungi can make animals sick. These include skin conditions that affect humans including
athletes foot, ringworm, and thrush.

https://www.myfootdr.com.au/conditions-treated/athletes-
foot-tinea-pedis/

https://lowcountryfamilydentistry.com/what-is-oral-thrush/ https://theconversation.com/ringworm-
fungal-infections-are-common-in-the-us-and-
are-becoming-increasingly-resistant-to-
treatment-6-questions-answered-206560
 Fungi
Fungi are large and diverse group with more than 250, 000 named species. Include single-celled
organism called yeast.
 Any member of the eukaryotic group of organisms, which also includes the
more well-known mushrooms and microbes like yeast and mold, is referred to as fungi or fungus.
 Some fungi are dimorphic.
- organisms that have the ability to switch between two morphologies during their lifecycle: mold or
yeast.
 Dimorphism in pathogenetic fungi is temperature dependent:

 At 37 it
 At 250
is
it is YEASTLIKE
MOLDLIKE

https://microbiologyinfo.com/difference-between-mold-and-yeast/
 Fungi
Fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin,
unlike the cell walls of plants and some protist,
which contain cellulose, and unlike the cell walls of
bacteria.
The term “mycology” refers to the study of
fungi.

Studies on genetics have revealed that fungi

are more closely related to animals rather than
plants.

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-cell-structure-of-fungi
 Types of Fungi
Fungi are classified according to their life cycle, whether or not they have a fruiting body,
how those bodies are arranged, and the kind of spores (reproductive or distributional
cells) they produce.
A few fungi act like predators and capture prey like roundworms. Some are edible,
while others are poisonous.

https://www.shutterstock.com/shutterstock/photos/421233160/
display_1500/stock-vector-colorful-forest-wild-collection-of-assorted-
edible-mushrooms-and-toadstools-with-names-in-cartoon- https://www.vectorstock.com/royalty-free-vector/poisonous-mushrooms-vector-997832
 The Three (3) major groups of fungi are:
Types of Fungi
1. Molds - Multicellular filamentous

https://www.inaturalist.org/blog/18100-parasitic-molds-
observation-of-the-week-8-5-18

2. Mushrooms - Macroscopic filamentous fungi that form large fruiting bodies. Although the group is
occasionally referred to as “mushrooms”, the term refers only to the portion of the fungus that grows
above ground and is also known as the fruiting body.

3. Yeast - Single celled microscopic fungi

https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/milky-mushroom-19245939297.html

https://fungi.myspecies.info/all-fungi/torula-herbarum

https://prevent-and-protect.com/pathogen/candida-albicans-en/
 Types of Multicellular groups of Fungi
1. Filamentous molds
Hyphae (which are extremely little threads) make up molds. Hyphae form lengthy, branching
chains by growing at the tip and repeatedly dividing along their length. The Hyphae continue
to expand and entwine until they create a web of threads known as a mycelium.
The hyphal tip secretes enzymes. These enzymes break down the soil-based organic
materials into smaller molecules that the fungus may consume. Cross-walls called septa may
form compartments. Septa have pores for movement of cytoplasm. Septate (with septa) and
aseptate or coenocytic (without septa).

https://microbialnotes.com/fungal-hyphae-its-definition-structure-and-functions
1. Filamentous molds
Types of Fungi
 Stolon's or horizontal hyphae are what connect groups of hyphae to each other.
 Rhizoids which are the rootlike parts of hyphae serves as the anchor of the fungus.

https://www.britannica.com/science/Rhizopus
 1. Filamentous molds Types of Fungi
Spores develop on some of the hyphal branches that have grown into the air. Spores are
specialized structures covered in a barrier that protects them from adverse environmental factors
like drying out and extreme heat. They are so tiny that 500 to 1000 might fit on the head of a pin.

 Comparable to seeds, which allows them to

multiply.
 Can be distributed by wind, rain or insects.
 When right conditions are present, they begin to
proliferate and create new hyphae after finally
landing in new habitats. https://www.britannica.com/science/
 Due to their inability to travel, fungi employ Rhizopus

spores to locate new environments with fewer

rival creatures.
https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/the-biology-of-molds-moulds-classification-characteristics-
structure-and-types--544654148702594432/
 Phycomyces blakesleeanus
1. Filamentous molds, examples; Types of Fungi

Water mold/
https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/ADSHN3AJYV2PXB9E
Oomycetes Fusarium
https://www.britannica.com/science/water-mold

Aspergillus

Acremonium
Penicillium Trichoderma
https://www.adelaide.edu.au/mycology/fungal-descriptions-and-antifungal-susceptibility/
hyphomycetes-conidial-moulds/penicillium
 Types of Fungi
2. Macroscopic filamentous fungi

Mycelium production underground is also

a method of growth for macroscopic filamentous
fungus.
 Because they generate visible fruiting bodies
(usually known as mushrooms or toadstools)
that contain the spores, they differ from moulds.
 The hyphae that make up the fruiting body are
closely packed and divide to create the various
components of fungus structure, such as the cap
and the stem.
 A 10 cm diameter cap can produce up to 100
million spores each hour from gills that are
covered in spores.
https://bodell.mtchs.org/OnlineBio/BIOCD/text/chapter18/concept18.1.html
 Saccharomyces yeast
3. Yeasts Types of Fungi
 Yeasts are tiny, solitary cells that resemble lemons and
are comparable in size to red blood cells. They
reproduce by splitting the original parent cell into two
daughter cells.
 On the yeasts cells surface, buds that have detached
leave scars. https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2020/05/04/destructive-protein-can-
 Saccharomyces yeast, for example, is crucial to the also-help-cells-survive-tough-times/saccharomyces-cerevisiae-yeast/

baking and brewing processes.

 One of the most popular model organisms for genetic
study is yeast, which is utilized, for instance, in cancer
research.
 Other types of yeast, such as Candida, are
opportunistic pathogens that infect people with
weakened immune systems.

https://medium.com/@anna2glow/when-good-bacteria-turns-bad-how-candida-can-explain-
your-mysterious-symptoms-a009e10afbc6
 Characteristics of Fungi
 Absorbed heterotrophs (digest food first and then absorb it into their bodies)
 Release digestive enzymes to break down organic material or their host
 Store food energy as glycogen
 Important decomposers and recyclers of nutrients in the environment
 Most are multicellular, except unicellular yeast.
 Cell walls are made of chitin (complex polysaccharide)
 Body is called Thallus
 Grow as microscopic tubes or filaments called hyphae
 Some fungi are internal or external parasites
 A few fungi act like predators and capture prey like roundworms
 Some are edible, while others are poisonous
 Produce both sexual and asexual structures
 Grow best in warm, moist environments
 Fungi include puffballs, yeast, mushrooms, toadstools, rust, smuts, ringworm and
molds.
 Characteristics of Fungi
 A Thallus, which can be single or multicellular, is the vegetative body of a
fungus.
 Dimorphic fungi can transition from a single cell to a multicellular state
based on their surroundings. Generally speaking, yeasts are the name given
to unicellular fungi.
 Unicellular fungi includes: Candida species
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(baker’s yeasts)

https://medium.com/@anna2glow/when-good-bacteria-turns-bad-how-candida-can-explain-
your-mysterious-symptoms-a009e10afbc6

https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2020/05/04/destructive-protein-can-
also-help-cells-survive-tough-times/saccharomyces-cerevisiae-yeast/
 Characteristics of Fungi
The majority of fungus are multicellular creatures. They exhibit the vegetative and
reproductive morphological stages separately.
 While the reproductive stage can be more obvious, the vegetative stage Is composed of a
tangle of thin, thread-like structures called hyphae (plural: hypha).
 The mycelium is the collection of hyphae. It may develop on a surface, in a liquid, on living
tissue, or in soil or decomposing matter.
 The mycelium of a fungus cam be exceedingly enormous, with some species actually being
“the fungus humongous”, even though individual hyphae must be examined under a
microscope.

https://naturamushrooms.com/blogs/news/mycelium-mushroom-health-benefits
https://byjus.com/biology/difference-between-spore-and-vegetative-cell/
 Characteristics of Fungi
 The endwalls of majority of fungal hyphae, known as septa (plural: septum),
split them into distinct cells.
 Small openings in the septa of the majority of phyla of fungi allow nutrients
and small molecules to move quickly from one cell to the next along the
hypha. Perforated septa is how they are referred to.
 There are no septa between the hyphae in the bread molds, which are
classified in the Phylum Zygomycota. Instead, they are created by massive
cells with numerous nuclei, a structure known as coenocytic hyphae. Fungi may
grow with or without light, and they prefer wet, somewhat acidic
surroundings.

https://www.medical-labs.net/fungi-hyphae-1522/forms-of-hyphae-septate-and-coenocytic-
hyphae/
 Life cycle of Fungi
 Fungi produce both sexual and asexual spores. They are classified by their sexual
reproductive structures. Filamentous fungi can reproduce asexually by fragmentation of
their hyphae. In addition, both sexual and asexual reproduction in fungi occurs by the
formation of spores. In fact, fungi are usually identified by spore type.
 Spores are formed from aerial hyphae in a number of different ways depending on the
species.
 Fungal spores can be either asexual or sexual.
 Sexual spores result from the fusion of nucleus from two opposite mating strains of the
same species of fungus.
 Fungi produce sexual spores less frequently than asexual spores.
 Organisms that grow from sexual spores will have genetic characteristics of both
parental strains. Because spores are of considerable importance in the identification of
fungi we will look at some of the various types of asexual and sexual spores.
 Life cycle of Fungi
ASEXUAL SPORES

Asexual spores are produced by an individual fungus through mitosis and

subsequent cell division, there is no fusion of the nuclei of cells.
Several types of asexual spores are produced by fungi.
(a)One type is a conidiospore or conidium – a unicellular or multicellular spore that is
not enclosed in a sac.
Comidia are produced in a chain at the end of a conidiophore. Such spores are
produced by Aspergillus.
(b)A second type of spore is a chlamydospore – a thick walled spore formed by
rounding and enlargement within a hyphal segment.
A fungus that produces chlamydospores is the yeast C. albicans .
(c) A third type of asexual spore is asporangiospore – formed within a sporangium or
sac, at the end of an aerial hypha called a sporangiosphore.
A Life cycle of Fungi
S
E
X
U
A
L

S
P
O
R
E
S
https://www.accessscience.com/content/article/a275800
 Life cycle of Fungi
SEXUAL SPORES
A fungal sexual spore results from
sexual reproduction consisting of three
(3) phases.
1. Plasmogamy – A haploid nucleus of a
donor cell (+) penetrates the
cytoplasm of a recipient cell (-).
2. Karyogamy – the (+) and (-) nuclei
fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus.
3. Meiosis – the diploid nuclen gives
rise to haploid nuclei (sexual spores)
some of which may be genetic
recombinants.
Important Phyla of Fungi
 Zygomycota Important Phyla of Fungi
The Zygomycota or conjugation fungi are saprophytic mold that have coenocytic
hyphae.
 The sexual spores are zygospores.
 A zygospore is a large spore enclosed in a thick wall.
 This type of spore results from the fusion of the nuclei of two cells that are
morphologically similar to each other.

https://www.yourdictionary.com/articles/zygomycetes-examples
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/zygomycota
 Ascomycota Important Phyla of Fungi
The Ascomycota or sac fungi
include molds with septate
hyphae and some yeasts.
 Their asexual spores are
usually conidia produced in
long chains from conidiophore.
 The term “conidia” means dust,
and these spores freely detach
from the chain at the
slightest disturbance and
float in the air like dust.
 An ascospore results from the
son of the nucleus of two
cells that can be either
morphologically similar or
dissimilar.
(a) Goblet shaped apothecia of Urnula craterium, the Devil’s urn.
(b) (b) Flattened discoid apothecia on the thallus of a species of the lichen
Xanthoparmelia.
(c) (c) Highly modified apothecium of the summer truffle, Tuber aestivum.
(d) (d) Perithecial stroma of Cordyceps militaris fruiting from parasitized caterpillar.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/ascomycota
Basidiomycota Important Phyla of Fungi
The Bandiomycota or club fungi also possess septate hyphae.
 This Phylum includes fungi that produce mushrooms.
 Basidiospores are formed externally on a base pedestal called a basidium.

https://www.britannica.com/summary/mushroom
 Fungal Diseases
Any fungal infections is called a mycosis.
 Mycosis are generally chronic (long-lasting) infections because funds grow
slowly.
 Mycoses are classified into five groups according to the degree of tissue
involvement and mode of entry.
1.Superficial mycoses Fungal Diseases
 Fungi that is found in localized parts like, along the hair shafts and in
superficial (surface) epidermis cells.
 Fungi that affects the outermost layers of the skin, hair and nails.
 Are typically limited to the stratum corneum and do not invade deeper tissue
due to the hosts effective immune response.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jhy_7xDF__U
https://microbialnotes.com/superficial-mycosis-overview-diagnosis-treatment#google_vignette
2. Cutaneous mycoses Fungal Diseases
 Fungal disease infections that invade the keratinized tissues of the skin, hair, and nails.
 Dermatophytes, the main causative agents, possess keratinase enzymes, enabling them to
utilize keratin as a nutrient source.
Tinea Corporis/ring worm/ TINEA INFECTIONS

https://www.healthline.com/health/tinea-corporis

https://www.drvarsha.com/skin-infections-types-predisposing-factors-and-health-measures/
candidiasis/
3. Subcutaneous Mycoses Fungal Diseases
 Fungal infections that penetrate beyond the skin and involve the subcutaneous tissues,
connective tissues and muscles.
 Caused by saprophytic fungi that live in soil and on vegetation.
 Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous infection acquired by the gardeners and farmers.
Infection occurs by direct implantation of spores or mycelial fragments into a puncture
wound in the skin.
4. Systemic Mycoses Fungal Diseases
 Are severe and invasive fungal infections that affect internal organs, such as the lungs,
central nervous systems, and bloodstream.
 Inhalation of spores is the route of transmission.
 Begins to the lungs and then spread to the other body tissues.

(A,B), erythematous scaly lesions

(C–F), palmar involvement
(C), and oroantral fistula (G)

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmed.2021.670731/full
5. Opportunistic mycoses Fungal Diseases
 fungal infections of the body which occur almost exclusively in debilitated patients whose
normal defense mechanisms are impaired.

https://slideplayer.com/slide/3819297/
 Economic Effects of Fungi
Fungi have been used in biotechnology for many years. Aspergillus niger, for example has
been used to produce citric acid for foods and beverages since 1914.

https://plantwiseplusknowledgebank.org/doi/10.1079/PWKB.Species.7444
 Economic Effects of Fungi
The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is used to make bread and wine. It is generally engineered
to produce a variety of proteins including hepatitis B vaccine.
 Saccharomyces and another yeast Torulopsis are used as protein supplements for humans and
cattle.
 Trichoderma is also used commercially.

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-67561-5_12
https://www.tradeindia.com/products/trichoderma-fungicide-4312413.html
 Economic Effects of Fungi
in contrast to these beneficial effects, fungi can have undesirable effects
for industry and agriculture because of their nutritional adaptations. As most of
us have observed, mold spoilage of fruits, grains, and vegetables is relatively
common but bacterial spoilage of such food is not.

https://www.shutterstock.com/image-photo/food-moldclose-moldy-strawberry-box-photo-
2199383277
https://medium.com/@officialfoodmagazine/how-do-microorganisms-spoil-food-9b920f643618
 https://nhgardensolutions.wordpress.com/tag/split-gill-mushroom/
https://www.fungalpunknature.co.uk/Fungi/diagramofgill.htm