Mettu University

College of Engineering and Technology

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Network Analysis and Synthesis (ECE-3092 )

Chapter One
Introduction to network analysis and synthesis

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 Contents of the chapter:
Introduction to Nework
Electrical network
Network analysis
kirchhoffs laws
Mesh analysis
Nodal analysis Network Analysis Theorems laws
Superposition theorem
Thevenin’s theorem
Norton’s theorem
Maximum power transfer

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 Introduction network analysis and network synthesis
Network analysis and network synthesis are two fundamental concepts
in the field of electrical engineering and signal processing.
 Network Analysis
 Network synthesis
Let's explore each concept in more detail:
1. Network Analysis:
 Network analysis involves the study and evaluation of electrical
circuits or systems to determine their behavior and characteristics.
 It focuses on understanding how components such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors, and voltage/current sources interact within a
circuit.
 The primary goal of network analysis is to analyze the circuit's
response to different input signals, such as voltage or current, and to
calculate key parameters such as voltage drops, current flows,
power dissipation, and frequency response.
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 Network analysis techniques typically involve the application of
mathematical methods, such as Kirchhoff's laws, Ohm's law, and
various circuit analysis techniques (e.g., nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, superposition principle).
 These techniques allow engineers to analyze and solve complex
circuits, predict circuit behavior, diagnose faults or problems, and
optimize circuit performance.
2. Network Synthesis:
 Network synthesis, also known as filter synthesis, is the process of
designing and creating electrical networks or filters that meet
specific performance requirements.
 Network synthesis is to design a circuit that can manipulate signals
in a desired manner, such as attenuating certain frequencies,
amplifying others, or shaping the signal's frequency response.

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 In network synthesis, engineers start with a set of specifications or
requirements for the desired filter's characteristics.
 These specifications may include parameters such as cutoff
frequency, pass-band ripple, stop-band attenuation, and transition
bandwidth.
 Based on these specifications, engineers use various synthesis
techniques to design a circuit or filter that meets the desired
specifications.
 Network synthesis techniques can be categorized into two main
types:
 active synthesis and passive synthesis.
 Active synthesis involves the use of active components such as
operational amplifiers to achieve the desired filter response.
 Passive synthesis, on the other hand, utilizes passive components
such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors to design filters.

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 To analyze the above circuit, one would first find the equivalent
of R2 and R3 in parallel, then add R1 in series to arrive at a
total resistance.
 Then, taking the voltage of battery B1 with that total circuit
resistance, the total current could be calculated through the use
of Ohm's Law (I=V/R), then that current figure used to calculate
voltage drops in the circuit. All in all, a fairly simple procedure.
However, the addition of just one more battery could change all
of that:
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 Network synthesis techniques range from simple designs using
basic components to complex designs utilizing advanced
mathematical optimization algorithms.
 The goal is to find the most efficient and effective circuit
configuration that satisfies the given specifications.
 In summary, network analysis focuses on understanding and
analyzing the behavior of existing circuits or systems, while
network synthesis involves designing new circuits or filters to meet
specific performance requirements.
 Both concepts are crucial in the design, analysis, and optimization
of electrical networks and play a significant role in various fields,
including electronics, telecommunications, and signal processing.

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Here are a few examples of network analysis techniques and their applications:

 Nodal Analysis:
 Nodal analysis, also known as the node-voltage method, is a technique used to
analyze electrical circuits. It involves applying Kirchhoff's current law (KCL) at
each node in the circuit to determine the voltages at those nodes.
 Nodal analysis is particularly useful for analyzing circuits with multiple current
sources and complex connections. It finds applications in various fields,
including power systems analysis, electronic circuit design, and
telecommunications.

 Mesh Analysis:
 Mesh analysis, also known as the mesh-current method, is a technique used to
analyze electrical circuits. It involves applying Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)
around each mesh or loop in the circuit to determine the currents flowing through
those loops.
 Mesh analysis is commonly used to analyze circuits with multiple voltage
sources and interconnected loops. It finds applications in fields such as electronic
circuit design, filter design, and control systems analysis.
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Fourier Analysis:
 Fourier analysis is a mathematical technique used to analyze the
frequency content of signals or waveforms.
 It decomposes a complex waveform into a series of sinusoidal
components of different frequencies, known as the Fourier series.
 Fourier analysis is widely used in signal processing,
telecommunications, and audio/image/video processing.
 It helps in understanding the frequency characteristics of signals,
filtering out unwanted frequencies, and designing frequency-selective
filters.
Network Performance Analysis:
 Network performance analysis involves evaluating the performance
characteristics of computer networks or communication systems.
 It includes measuring and analyzing parameters such as throughput,
latency, packet loss, and network congestion. Network performance
analysis helps in optimizing network performance, identifying
bottlenecks, and improving the quality of service.
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Fault Analysis:
 Fault analysis is the process of identifying and diagnosing faults or
problems in electrical circuits or systems. It involves analyzing
circuit behavior under faulty conditions and identifying the causes
of the malfunction.
 Fault analysis techniques include fault simulation, fault tree
analysis, and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA).
 Fault analysis is crucial in ensuring the reliability and safety of
electrical systems, such as power distribution networks and
electronic devices.
 These are just a few examples of network analysis techniques and
their applications. Network analysis encompasses a wide range of
techniques and methodologies, each suitable for different types of
networks and systems.
 The specific choice of analysis technique depends on the nature of
the network being studied and the desired analysis goals.
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 Electrical network
Electrical network: is an interconnection of
electrical components (such as batteries, resistors,
inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors etc.)
• A model of such an interconnection, consisting of
electrical elements such as:
- Voltage & current sources
- Resistances
-Inductances & capacitances etc.
 Classification of Electrical Network
Based on their behavior, they are classified as follows:
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i).Linear N/W: is a network that exhibits constant parameters,
i.e. (R,L C). In other words, these parameters do not change with
the changes in voltage or current.
• Ohm’s law and superposition theorem can be applied.
ii).Non-linear N/W: is a network whose parameters do
not show a linear relation between voltage and current.
• Ohm’s law and superposition theorem may or may not
be applied.
iii).Bi-laterial N/W: the relation between voltage and current
does not change in both the directions in the network.
e.g purely resistive network

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iv).Uni-laterial N/W: a network whose behaviour is
dependent of the current through various elements
of it. Half wave diode rectifier(example)
 Active N/W Lamped N/W
 Passive N/W Distributed N/W
Why an electrical network classified?
 To know the behaviour of the N/W
 To understand the characteristics of the N/W
 To determine the response of the N/W
 To differentiate their working principles
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Exploring Network Theorems
 Network theorems are mathematical principles and techniques used
to simplify and analyze electrical circuits.
 These theorems provide tools for solving complex circuits by
reducing them to simpler equivalents or by establishing
relationships between different circuit parameters.
Here are a few commonly used network theorems:
 Ohm's Law:
 Ohm's Law is a fundamental theorem in electrical engineering that
relates the voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in a circuit. It
states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across it and inversely proportional to its
resistance.
 Mathematically, Ohm's Law is expressed as V = I * R. Ohm's Law
is the foundation for many other network theorems and analysis
techniques.
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 Ohm’s law: states that the current in the purely
resistive network is directly proportional to the applied
voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the
materials
i.e I =

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 Kirchhoff's Laws:
 Kirchhoff's Laws are two fundamental laws used for analyzing electrical circuits.
They are named after Gustav Kirchhoff, a German physicist.
 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of currents entering a node in
a circuit is equal to the sum of currents leaving that node.
 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of voltage drops around any
closed loop in a circuit is equal to the sum of voltage rises. Kirchhoff's Laws are
essential for solving complex circuits using nodal analysis and mesh analysis
techniques.
 Superposition Theorem:
 The Superposition Theorem states that in a linear circuit with multiple sources,
the response (voltage or current) at any point in the circuit can be determined by
considering the individual effects of each source, while keeping all other sources
turned off (replaced by their internal resistances).
 The total response is obtained by summing the individual responses.
 The Superposition Theorem is useful for analyzing circuits with multiple sources
and simplifying the analysis process.

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 Example 1: Find I in the circuit shown in figure 1.

Solution: Principle of Superposition is applied by taking 1V source only at first fig.

2)

[by current division formula]

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 Next, let us assume the current source only (figure 3)

[by current division formula]

It may be observed that utilising the principle of Superposition, the net response can be
obtained when both the sources (1A and 1V) are present. The current through 2Ω resistor is
obtained as

[I1 and I2 being directed reverse].

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Example: 2 Using Superposition theorem, find the current through a link that is to be
connected between terminals a-b. Assume the link resistance to be zero.[figure 4]

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Solution:
As the link resistance between the terminals a-b is zero, hence, the link is practically
a short circuiting link and the current through the link is assumed to be I s.c.
Let us now first take the 50V source. The circuit configuration for this case is shown
in figure 5.

[As a-b is short circuited, no current will flow through loop-2 in figure 5].

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Next, the sources 10V and 20V are considered and the circuit configuration is shown in fig. 6.

Here,

Following Superposition theorem,

i.e., the current through the short circuit link is 7A.

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Thevenin's Theorem:
 Thevenin's Theorem states that any linear two-terminal network can be replaced
by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a single
resistor.
 The equivalent voltage source is called the Thevenin voltage, and the equivalent
resistor is called the Thevenin resistance.
 Thevenin's Theorem simplifies complex networks by reducing them to a simpler
equivalent circuit, which is particularly useful in circuit design and analysis.
Norton's Theorem:
 Norton's Theorem is similar to Thevenin's Theorem but deals with the current
equivalent of a network.
 It states that any linear two-terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a single resistor.
 The equivalent current source is called the Norton current, and the equivalent
resistor is called the Norton resistance. Norton's Theorem provides an alternative
method for simplifying and analyzing circuits.
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
 The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that the maximum power is
transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is equal to the source
resistance. This theorem is useful in designing power transfer systems and
optimizing power efficiency. 26
 Thevenin's Theorem Example
For Example consider the following circuit The Thevenin equivalent of the circuit
is:

Where,
= the voltage measured through the terminals A and B in the first
circuit. and

= The Resistance measured through the terminal A and B in the

first circuit after the voltage source is replaced by a short.

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Example: 1 In the network of figure 1, find the current through the 10Ω resistor
utilizing Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solution:
Let the resistance r4 (10Ω) be removed and the circuit is exhibited in figure 2.

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At node C, application of KCL yields

[assuming the open circuit voltage across the terminal x-y in figure 2 to be V o.c ; obviously,
the potential at C node is Vo.c ]

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Next, the independent voltage sources are removed by short circuits (figure 3)

Thevenin’s equivalent circuit being shown in the figure 4,

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Example: 2
In the circuit of figure 5, find the power loss in the 1Ω resistor by Thevenin’s Theorem.

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Norton’s Theorem Example
Example: 1
Find Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of terminal x-y in the network of figure 1.

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 Example: 2
In the circuit of figure 4, if R1 = R2 = 4Ω, find the short circuit current through x-y (use
Norton’s theorem). What will happen if R1 = 2R2 ?

Solution:
Let us throw a short circuit across x-y terminal as shown in figure 5.

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Network Analysis :is the process of determining:
 the voltage drops across the elements/resistors
 the current flowing through the elements
 the power dissipiated by the elements
Electrical Network Laws/Theorems
KVL: In any closed loop, the total voltage(Vs)
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops within the same loop.
 In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages
within the loop must be equal to zero.
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 Cont’d
• Based on principle of conservation of energy.
=0
KCL: The total current or charge entering node is
exactly equal to the charge leaving the node.
 Based on principle of conservation of electric
charge.
 In other words, the algebraic sum of all the
currents entering and leaving a node must be
equal to zero . Current In = Current Out

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A closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all source voltages must be equal to the
algebraic sum of all the voltage drops.

V1-IR1-IR2-V2-IR3-IR4+V3-IR5-V4=0

V1-V2+V3-V4=IR1+IR2+IR3+IR4+IR5

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 Steps to Determine Mesh Currents:
 Assign mesh currents i1, i2, .., in to the n meshes. Current
direction need to be same in all meshes either
clockwise or anticlockwise.
 Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s
 law to express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
 Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the
mesh currents.
 Mesh analysis: is a method that is used to solve circuits for
the loop currents (and indirectly the voltages) at any place
in the circuit.
 Mesh analysis works by arbitrarily assigning mesh/loop
currents in the essential meshes.
 The network variables are loop currents 55
Explores Network Transform Representations

 Network transform representations are mathematical techniques used

to analyze and represent electrical circuits or systems in different
domains.
 These representations allow engineers to study circuit behavior,
perform analysis, and design filters or control systems. Here are some
commonly used network transform representations:
Time Domain Representation:
 The time domain representation is the most basic and intuitive way to
describe a circuit's behavior.
 It represents electrical signals as functions of time. In the time domain,
waveforms are plotted on a time axis, showing amplitude variations
over time.
 This representation allows direct observation of signal characteristics
such as waveform shape, duration, and amplitude.
 Time domain analysis is useful for studying transient responses, signal
propagation delays, and circuit stability. 56
Frequency Domain Representation:
 The frequency domain representation provides a view of a circuit or system in
terms of its frequency components.
 It represents signals as functions of frequency rather than time. The most common
tool for frequency domain analysis is the Fourier transform, which decomposes a
signal into its constituent frequency components.
 The frequency domain representation allows the analysis of signal spectra,
frequency response characteristics, and the design of frequency-selective filters.
Techniques such as the Fourier transform, Laplace transform, and z-transform are
used to convert signals between the time domain and frequency domain.
Laplace Domain Representation:
 The Laplace domain representation, based on the Laplace transform, is widely
used in the analysis of linear time-invariant (LTI) systems.
 The Laplace transform converts time-domain functions into complex frequency-
domain functions.
 It allows the analysis of circuit behavior in terms of complex variables, enabling
the study of system stability, transient response, and frequency response
characteristics.
 Laplace domain representations are particularly useful for analyzing systems with
differential equations, such as electronic circuits and control systems. 57
z-Domain Representation:
 The z-domain representation is a discrete-time counterpart of the Laplace domain
representation.
 It is used for analyzing and designing discrete-time systems, such as digital filters
and digital control systems.
 The z-transform converts discrete-time signals or sequences into complex
functions of a complex variable z.
 The z-domain representation allows the analysis of system stability, frequency
response, and impulse response characteristics in discrete-time systems.
S-Parameter Representation:
 S-parameters, or scattering parameters, are used to characterize the behavior of
linear electrical networks in high-frequency applications, such as microwave
circuits.
 S-parameters describe the relationship between incident and reflected waves at
different ports of a network.
 They provide information about signal reflection, transmission, and power transfer
characteristics.
 S-parameters are commonly used in the design and analysis of microwave circuits,
antennas, and RF systems.
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How does the z-transform differ from the Laplace transform in terms of its
applications?
 The z-transform and the Laplace transform are both mathematical tools used to
analyze signals and systems, but they have different applications and are used in
different contexts.
 Here are the key differences between the two transforms in terms of their
applications:
Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time Systems:
 The Laplace transform is primarily used for analyzing continuous-time systems.
 It converts time-domain signals or functions into the frequency domain, allowing
analysis of continuous-time systems' behavior, stability, frequency response, and
transient response.
 The Laplace transform is commonly applied to analyze analog electronic circuits,
control systems, and linear time-invariant (LTI) continuous-time systems.
 On the other hand, the z-transform is specifically designed for analyzing discrete-
time systems.
 It converts discrete-time signals or sequences into the frequency domain, enabling
the analysis of discrete-time systems' behavior, stability, frequency response, and
impulse response.
 The z-transform is widely used in digital signal processing, digital control
systems, and the design and analysis of digital filters. 59
Continuous-Time vs. Discrete-Time Signals:
 The Laplace transform is applied to continuous-time signals or functions, which
are defined and continuous for all real values of time.
 It allows the representation and analysis of continuous-time signals in the
frequency domain. The Laplace transform is commonly used for analyzing signals
such as speech, audio, and analog electrical signals.
 In contrast, the z-transform is used for discrete-time signals or sequences, which
are defined only at specific discrete points in time.
 Discrete-time signals are commonly encountered in digital signal processing and
sampled data systems. The z-transform enables the representation and analysis of
discrete-time signals in the frequency domain.
Complex s-Domain vs. Complex z-Domain:
 The Laplace transform operates in the complex s-domain, where the complex
variable s represents frequency.
 The Laplace domain provides a continuous range of frequencies from zero to
infinity. It allows the analysis of both stable and unstable continuous-time systems.
 On the other hand, the z-transform operates in the complex z-domain, where the
complex variable z represents the frequency response of a discrete-time system.
 The z-domain is typically confined to a unit circle in the complex plane,
representing the periodic nature of discrete-time signals. The z-transform is used
to analyze discrete-time systems and digital filters and is particularly suited for
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stable and causal systems.
Continuous vs. Discrete Frequency Spectra:
 The Laplace transform represents continuous-time signals in terms of the
complex frequency variable s, providing a continuous frequency spectrum.
 It allows the analysis of a continuous range of frequencies, including both real
and complex frequencies.
 In contrast, the z-transform represents discrete-time signals in terms of the
complex frequency variable z, providing a discrete frequency spectrum.
 The z-transform represents frequencies in terms of discrete points on the unit
circle in the complex plane, corresponding to the periodic nature of discrete-time
signals.
 In summary, the Laplace transform is used for analyzing continuous-time
systems and signals, while the z-transform is used for analyzing discrete-time
systems and signals. The Laplace transform operates in the complex s-domain,
while the z-transform operates in the complex z-domain. The choice between the
two transforms depends on the nature of the system or signal being analyzed,
whether it is continuous-time or discrete-time, and the specific analysis goals.

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 Node- A node in an electric circuit is a point where two or more components
are connected together. This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot. The
circuit in fig.below has nodes a, b, c, and g. Generally, a point, or a node in a
circuit specifies a certain voltage level with respect to a reference point or node.

 Branch- A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit

containing the electric elements. These elements could be sources, resistances,
or other elements. Fig. above shows that the circuit has six branches: three
resistive branches (a-c, b-c, and b-g) and three branches containing voltage
and current sources (a-, a-, and c-g).
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 Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit i.e., a closed path or
loop in a circuit is a contiguous sequence of branches which starting and end
points for tracing the path are, in effect, the same node and touches no other
node more than once. Fig. above shows three loops or closed paths namely, a-
b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a. Further, it may be noted that the outside closed
paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are also form two loops.

 Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops
within it or in its interior. Fig.1.3 indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-
c-g-b; and a-c-b-a) just identified are also ‗meshes‘ but other two loops (a-c-g-
a and a-b-c-g-a) are not.

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 Branch current method
 The first and most straightforward network analysis technique is called the
Branch Current Method. In this method, we assume directions of currents
in a network, then write equations describing their relationships to each other
through Kirchhoff's and Ohm's Laws. Once we have one equation for every
unknown current, we can solve the simultaneous equations and determine all
currents, and therefore all voltage drops in the network.
 The first step is to choose a node (junction of wires) in the circuit to use as a
point of reference for our unknown currents. I'll choose the node joining the
right of R1, the top of R2, and the left of R3.
 At this node, guess which directions the three wires' currents take, labeling the
three currents as I1, I2, and I3, respectively.
 Bear in mind that these directions of current are speculative at this point.
Fortunately, if it turns out that any of our guesses were wrong, we will know
when we mathematically solve for the currents

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 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) tells us that the algebraic sum of currents
entering and exiting a node must equal zero, so we can relate these three currents
(I1, I2, and I3) to each other in a single equation. For the sake of convention, I'll
denote any current entering the node as positive in sign, and any current exiting
the node as negative in sign: KCL applied to currents at node –I1+I2-I3=0
 The next step is to label all voltage drop polarities across resistors according to
the assumed directions of the currents. Remember that the ―upstream‖ end of a
resistor will always be negative, and the ―downstream‖ end of a resistor positive
with respect to each other, since electrons are negatively charged:
 The battery polarities, of course, remain as they were according to their
symbology (short end negative, long end positive). It is OK if the polarity of a
resistor's voltage drop doesn't match with the polarity of the nearest battery, so
long as the resistor voltage polarity is correctly based on the assumed direction
of current through it. 65
 The
End!
Any
Question
?
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