FIRST SEMESTER S.Y.

2023-2024
 Earth Science is the study of our Earth, its life-
supporting properties, materials, and geologic processes occurring
in its layers; and important natural changes in its over-all
environment. It is interrelated with other sciences: geology,
oceanography, meteorology, and astronomy.
Geology is the study of the materials and processes that
operate beneath and upon the Earth’s surface.
Oceanography is the study of the composition and
movements of seawater, as well as coastal processes, seafloor
topography, and marine life.
Meteorology deals with the study of the atmosphere and
the elements that produce weather and climate.
 Astronomy is the study of the universe, our planet’s
origin, and the members of the solar system.
Earth Science likewise requires an understanding and application
of knowledge and principles from physics, chemistry, and biology.
The study of Earth Science develops an understanding of
the Earth’s structure, composition, and natural processes that form
a significant part of one’s environment. The learners are expected
to recognize and appreciate the importance of sunlight, resources
such as water and soil, metallic and nonmetallic minerals; and
atmospheric conditions favoring comfortable existence and growth
in current environment.
The Earth’s history is recorded in the rocks of the crust. Scientists
used an assumption called uniformitarianism in order to relate what
we know about present-day processes to past events – the present is
the key to the past. Uniformitarianism states that the natural laws we
know today have been constant over the geologic past.
As materials continued to accumulate, the high velocity impact of interplanetary debris and
the decay of radioactive elements caused the temperature of our planet to steadily increase.
During this period of intense heating Earth became hot enough that iron and nickel began
to melt. This process occurred rapidly on the scale of geologic time and produced Earth’s
dense iron-rich core. This early period of heating also resulted in a magma ocean buoyant
mass of molten rock rose toward the surface and eventually solidified to produce a thin,
primitive crust – thus, the three major divisions of the Earth’s interior – a) the iron – rich
core, b) the thin primitive crust, and c) its thickest layer, the mantle. In addition, the light
materials – including water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gases escaped to form a
primitive atmosphere and shortly thereafter the oceans.
Earth scientists use five principles to discern the nature and sequence of geological events and the
relative ages of rocks.
1.) Original horizontality
Layers of sediments are deposited evenly, with each new layer laid down nearly horizontally over
older sediment.
2.) Superposition
In an unreformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer is older than the above and younger
than the one below.
3.) Cross-cutting
An igneous intrusion or fault that cuts through preexisting rock is younger than the rock which it
cuts.
4.) Inclusion
Inclusions are pieces of one rock type contained within another. Any inclusion is older than the rock
containing it.
The actual age of rock can be estimated by radiometric dating, which
entails measuring the ratio of radioactive isotopes to their decay products.
Using both relative and radiometric dating, scientists learn the sequence of
events and how long ago each occurred. Radiometric dating gives the age of
sedimentary rocks in which the datable material is found. - The rock can be
no older than the age of datable material within it.
The geologic time scale was developed through the use of relative dating, and
specific dates were applied to via radiometric dating. The geologic time scale is
divided into three eras – the Paleozoic (time of ancient life), the Mesozoic (time
of middle life), and the Cenozoic (time of recent life.) Each era is further
divided into periods and further into epochs. The largest span of time, the time
period preceding the Paleozoic is known as the Precambrian (the time of hidden
life).
 The era ranges from about 4.6 billion years ago, when the Earth formed, to about 4.6 billion years ago, when
the earth formed, to about 544 million years ago, when abundant microscopic life appeared. Most of the rocks in this
early part of earth’s history have been extensively eroded away, metamorphosed, obscured by overlaying strata or
recycled into the Earth’s interior.
The earth’s earliest gases were hypothesized to be swept into space by solar wind. As the planet slowly cooled, a
more sustaining atmosphere was formed. Gases brought to the surface by volcanic processes created both a primitive
atmosphere and an ocean. The first simple organisms were plants. During mid-Precambrian, organisms such as blue
green algae developed a simple version of photosynthesis. Photosynthetic organisms require carbon dioxide to utilize the
sun’s energy. They keep the carbon dioxide and expel oxygen. With the release of free oxygen, a primitive ozone layer
began to develop which reduced the amount of harmful ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth.
The most common Precambrian fossils are stromatolites. These are not remains of actual organisms, rather indirect
pieces of evidence of algae. Many of the Precambrian fossils were preserved in hard, dense chemical sedimentary rock
known as chert. Fossils of plants date from middle Precambrian, but fossils of animal’s date in the late Precambrian.
Towards the end of this period, fossil records revealed that diverse and complete multi-celled organisms existed.
Paleozoic era began about 544 million years ago and lasted about 544 million
years ago and lasted about 300 million years, during which time sea levels rose
and fell worldwide, allowing shallow seas to cover the continents and marine
life to flourish-from marine invertebrates to fishes, amphibians and reptiles.
1.) Cambrian Period – almost all marine organisms came into existence as evidenced by abundant
fossils. A most important event is the development of organisms having the ability to secret
calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate for the formation of shells.

2.) Ordovician Period – During this period, the area north of the tropics was almost entirely
ocean, and most of the world's land was collected into the southern supercontinent Gondwana.
Throughout the Ordovician, Gondwana shifted towards the South Pole and much of it was
submerged underwater. is best known for its diverse marine invertebrates, including graptolites,
trilobites, brachiopods, and the conodonts (early vertebrates). A typical marine community
consisted of these animals, plus red and green algae, primitive fish, cephalopods, corals, crinoids,
and gastropods. More recently, tetrahedral spores that are similar to those of primitive land plants
have been found, suggesting that plants invaded the land at this time.
3.) Silurian Period – Coral reefs made their first appearance during this time, and the Silurian
was also a remarkable time in the evolution of fishes. Not only does this time period mark the
wide and rapid spread of jawless fish, but also the highly significant appearances of both the
first known freshwater fish as well as the first fish with jaws. It is also at this time that our first
good evidence of life on land is preserved, such as relatives of spiders and centipedes, and also
the earliest fossils of vascular plants.

4.) Devonian period – is known as the “age of fishes”. Lowland forests of seed ferns, scale trees
and true ferns flourished. Sharks and bony fishes developed. Today the lung fishes coelacanths,
a “living fossil” have such internal nostrils and breathe in a similar way. The first amphibians
made their appearance, although able to live on land, they need to return to water to lay their
eggs.
5.) Carboniferous period – warm, moist climate conditions contributed to lash vegetation and
dense swampy forests. Insects under rapid evolution led to such diverse forms of giant
cockroaches and dragonflies. The evolution of the first reptiles took place with the development of
the amniotic egg, a porous shell containing a membrane that provided an environment for an
embryo.

6.) Permian period – The last period of the Paleozoic era. The reptiles well-suited to their
environment that they ruled the Earth for 200 million years. The major groups of reptiles–
diapsids and synapsids dominated this period. Diapsids gave rise to the dinosaurs. Synapsids gave
rise to mammals.
Known as the age of reptiles, it is made up of three periods: Triassic, Jurassic,
and Cretaceous. The most significant event was the rise of the dinosaurs. A
famous Jurassic deposit is the Morrison Formation, within which the world’s
richest storehouse of dinosaurs was preserved. True pines and redwoods
appeared and rapidly spread. Flowering plants arose and their emergence
accelerated the evolution of insects. A major event of this era was the breakup
of Pangaea. By the end of this period, the dinosaurs and reptiles were
completely wiped out.
This era is known as the “age of mammals” because mammals replaced reptiles as the
dominant land animal. It is also sometimes called “age of flowering plants” because
angiosperms as the dominant land plants. Cenozoic era made up of two periods: Tertiary
and Quaternary. From oldest to youngest the periods are broken up into the Paleocene,
Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene for the Tertiary period, and the Pleistocene
and Holocene for the Quaternary period. Climates cooled during this era, hence the
widespread glaciation. This era also brought about the advent of humans. The lowered
sea level resulted in the “land bridges” connections between land masses. One of these
land bridges provided the route for the human migration from Asia to North, also
throughout the world.
 To fully understand our planet, we must learn its individual components (land, water, air,
and life forms) are interconnected. Earth as a system is composed of numerous interacting parts or
subsystems. Earth system science attempts to integrate the knowledge from traditional sciences –
geology atmospheric science, chemistry, biology, and so on. Earth is just a small part of a larger
system known as the solar system.
Earth system has a nearly endless array of subsystems in which matter is recycled over and
over again. The hydrologic cycle represents the unending circulation of Earth’s water among the
hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere and geosphere. Water enters the atmosphere by evaporation
from the surface and by transpiration from plants. Water vapor condenses in the atmosphere to
form clouds, which in turn produce precipitation that falls back to Earth.
The physical environment of our Earth is traditionally divided into three major spheres: the water portion,
the hydrosphere, the gaseous envelop, the atmosphere, and the solid part, the geosphere.
1. Hydrosphere – is a dynamic mass of water that continuously moving, evaporating from the oceans to
the atmosphere, precipitating to the land, and returning to the ocean.
a) About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form
of ocean water
b) Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-third
is present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.
2. Atmosphere – the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the Earth.
a) The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and
trace amount of other gases.
b) One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is
through atmospheric circulation.
c) There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere through the hydrologic cycle.
 3. Biosphere – the set of all life forms on Earth. It includes all life on Earth.
a) It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the
plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
b) For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic organisms.
During photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. The
biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.
4. Geosphere (Lithosphere) – includes the rocks and minerals on Earth – from the molten rock and heavy
metals in the deep interior of the planet to the sand on beaches and peaks of mountains. The geosphere also
includes the abiotic (non-living) parts of soils and the skeletons of animals that may become fossilized over
geologic time.
a) Beyond these parts, the geosphere is about processes. The processes of the rock cycle such as
metamorphism, melting and solidification, weathering, erosion, deposition, and burial are responsible for the
constant recycling of rocks on Earth between sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic states.
b) The Plate Tectonics is an important process shaping the surface of the Earth. The primary driving
mechanism is the Earth’s internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.
 The Earth’s compositional (density) differences
resulted in the formation of three layers- the crust,
mantle, and core. Based on physical properties, earth
is also divided into layers.
Layers of the Earth
1.) CRUST – is the thin, absolute outermost layer of the Earth which constitutes just 1% of the
Earth’s total mass. It is said that the crust is divided into two layers: sial and sima. The sial is the
uppermost layer whose name is derived from the first two letters of the two most abundant
elements found in it, silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al). The sima is the lower crust made up mostly of
silicon (Si) and magnesium (Mg).
The crust is composed of a variety of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks
gathered together into tectonic plates. These plates float above the Earth’s mantle, and it’s believed
that convection of rock in the mantle causes the plates to slide around. On average, rocks in the
crust last about 2 billion years before they slide underneath another plate and are returned to the
Earth’s mantle. New rocks are formed in the mid-ocean regions where new material wells out of the
Earth in between spreading plates. In comparison, rocks in the oceans are only 200 million years
old.
2.) MANTLE – more than 82% of Earth’s volume is contained in the mantle, a solid rocky shell that
extends to a depth of nearly 2, 900 kilometers. The dominant rock type in the uppermost mantle is the
peridotite, which is richer in the metal’s magnesium and iron.
a.) upper mantle extends from the crust mantle boundary to a depth of 600 kilometers. The top
portion of the upper mantle is part of the stiff lithosphere and beneath it is asthenosphere which is also
the source of volcanic magma. The top portion of this layer has a temperature/pressure regime that
results in a small amount of melting. The rocks lithospheres get progressively hotter and weaker with
increasing depth. At the depth of the uppermost asthenosphere, the rocks are close enough to their
melting temperature.
b.) lower mantle is at the top of the core, at a depth of 2, 900 kilometers. Because of an increase
in pressure the mantle gradually strengthens with depth. A boundary called Gutenberg discontinuity
separates the mantle and the Earth’s third layer. It was discovered by a German seismologist, Beno
Gutenberg in 1914.
3.) CORE– it is composed of an iron-nickel alloy with minor amounts of oxygen, silicon, and sulfur
elements that readily form compounds with iron.
Divided into two regions:
a) Outer Core – is a liquid layer 2, 200 kilometers thick. It is the movement of this zone that
generates of Earth’s magnetic field.
b) Inner Core – is a sphere with a radius of 1, 216 kilometers. The iron in the inner core is a
solid due to the immense pressures that exist in the center of the planet.
Mineralogy is the study of minerals. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Mineral is defined as a
naturally formed, generally inorganic, crystalline solid composed of an ordered array of atoms and
having a specific chemical composition. Minerals therefore, can be described as:
a.) Inorganic – formed by natural geologic processes.
b.) Formed in nature,
c.) Solids – crystalline substance that are solid at temperature at Earth’s surface.
d.) Atoms have the same crystalline pattern, and with specific chemical composition.
e.) Crystalline atoms are arranged in an orderly repetitive manner.
f.) Can be represented by a chemical formula.
 There are several different mineral properties which must be identified and defined.

Mineral Name Halite (table salt)

C h e m ic a l c o m p o sitio n Na C l
Luste r No n-m e ta llic -Vitre o us, tra nsp a re nt to tra nsluc e nt
Ha rd ne ss So ft (2-2.5)
C o lo r White
Stre a k White
C rysta l fo rm / Ha b it C ub ic
C le a va g e Pe rfe c t c ub ic
Sp e c ific G ra vity Lig h t n (2.2)
O th e r Pro p e rtie s Sa lty ta ste , ve ry so lu b le , p ro d uc e s re d d ish sp a rk in fla m e
1. Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light exhibited by the
mineral.
a) Metallic – generally opaque and exhibit a resplendent shine similar to
a polished metal
b) Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy), adamantine (brilliant/diamond-like),
resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy, among others.
2. Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not specifically surface) to abrasion.
a) Introduce students to the use of a hardness scale designed by German geologist/mineralogist Friedrich
Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness).
b) The Mohs Scale of Hardness measures the scratch resistance of various minerals from a scale of 1 to 10,
based on the ability of a harder material/mineral to scratch a softer one.
c) Pros of the Mohs scale:
i. The test is easy.
ii. The test can be done anywhere, anytime, as long as there is sufficient light to see scratches.
iii. The test is convenient for field geologists with scratch kits who want to make a rough
identification of minerals outside the lab.
d) Cons of the Mohs scale:
i. The Scale is qualitative, not quantitative.
ii. The test cannot be used to accurately test the hardness of industrial materials.
 Moh’s Scale of Hardness
1 Talc
2 Gypsum
3 Calcite
4 Fluorite
5 Apatite
6 Orthoclase
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
3. Crystal Form/Habit – The external shape of a crystal or groups of crystals is displayed/observed as these crystals
grow in open spaces. The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral).
It is the natural shape of the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture. Examples include prismatic,
tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and equant. A mineral that does not have a crystal structure is described as
amorphous.
4. Color and streak
a) A lot of minerals can exhibit same or similar colors. Individual minerals can also display a variety of
colors resulting from impurities and also from some geologic processes like weathering.
b) Examples of coloring: quartz can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white
(colorless quartz) etc.
c) Streak, on the other hand, is the mineral’s color in powdered form. It is inherent in almost every mineral,
and is a more diagnostic property compared to color. Note that the color of a mineral can be different from its streak.
d) Examples of streak: pyrite (FeS2) exhibits gold color but has a black or dark gray streak.
e.) The crystal’s form also defines the relative growth of the crystal in three dimensions, which include the
crystal’s length, width and height.
5. Cleavage – the property of some minerals to break along specific planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surfaces
a) These planes exist because the bonding of atoms making up the mineral happens to be weak in those areas.
b) When minerals break evenly in more than one direction, cleavage is described by the number of cleavage
directions, the angle(s) at which they meet, and the quality of cleavage (e.g., cleavage in 2 directions at 90°).
c) Cleavage is different from habit; the two are distinct, unrelated properties. Although both are dictated by
crystal structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral are growing, relying on how the individual atoms in the crystal
come together. Cleavage, meanwhile, is the weak plane that developed after the crystal is formed.
6. Specific Gravity – the ratio of the density of the mineral and the density of water
a) This parameter indicates how many times more the mineral weighs compared to an equal amount of water
(SG 1).
b) For example, a bucket of silver (SG 10) would weigh ten times more than a bucket of water.
7. Others – magnetism, odor, taste, tenacity, reaction to acid, etc. For example, magnetite is strongly magnetic; sulfur
has distinctive smell; halite is salty; calcite fizzes with acid as with dolomite but in powdered form; etc.
 a) Minerals can be grouped together, and the basis for such groupings. Although physical
properties are useful for mineral identification, some minerals may exhibit a wide range of
properties.
b) Minerals, like many other things, can also be categorized.

The most stable and least ambiguous basis for classification of minerals is based on their chemical
compositions.

Ele m e nt
Ele m e nt Ele m e nt Ele m e nt Ele m e nt Ele m e nt
Ele m e nt +
+ SiO4 + O2 + SO4 + S2 + CO3
Ha lo g e ns
Na tive Silic a te O xid e Sulfa te Sulfid e C a rb o na te Ha lid e
G o ld Q ua rtz He m a tite G yp sum Pyrite C a lc ite C hlo rine
Bism uth O livine Ma g ne tite Ba rite G a le na Do lo m ite Fluo rine
Dia m o nd Ta lc C hro m ite Anhyd rite Bo rnite Ma la c hite Ha lite
 The elements listed below comprise almost 99% of the minerals making up the Earth’s
crust.
Ele m e n t Sym b o l % b y w e ig h t o f Ea rth ’s %
c ru st a to m s
Oxyg e n O 46. 62.6
6
Silic o n Si 27.7 21.2
Aluminum Al 8.1 6.5
Iro n Fe 5.0 1.9
Ca lc ium Ca 3.6 1.9
So dium Na 2.8 2.6
Po ta ssium K 2.6 1.4
Ma g ne sium Mg 2.1 1.8
All o the r e le me nts 1.4 <0.1
1.)Silicates – Minerals containing the two most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust,
namely, silicon and oxygen.
a.) When linked together, these two elements form the silicon oxygen tetrahedron –
the fundamental building block of silicate minerals.
b.) Over 90% of rock-forming minerals belong to this group.

2.) Oxides – Minerals composed of oxygen anion (O2-) combined with one or more metal ions

3.) Sulfates – Minerals containing sulfur and oxygen in the form of the (SO4) anion

4.) Sulfides – Minerals containing sulfur and a metal; some sulfides are sources of
economically important metals such as copper, lead, and zinc.
5.) Carbonates – Minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2 -anion combined with other
elements

6.) Native Elements – Minerals that form as individual elements

a.) Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity,
typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
b.) Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
c.) Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)

7.) Halides – Minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more metals.
5.) Carbonates – Minerals containing the carbonate (CO3)2 -anion combined with other
elements

6.) Native Elements – Minerals that form as individual elements

a.) Metals and Intermetals – minerals with high thermal and electrical conductivity,
typically with metallic luster, low hardness (gold, lead)
b.) Semi-metals – minerals that are more fragile than metals and have lower
conductivity (arsenic, bismuth)
c.) Nonmetals – nonconductive (sulfur, diamond)

7.) Halides – Minerals containing halogen elements combined with one or more metals.
Rocks
Earth Science includes geology – the study of the earth’s natural materials and processes. It
includes the study of the Earth’s atmosphere oceans, and weather. It begins with an investigation of
the rocks and minerals. Petrology is the study of rocks.

Properties of Rocks:
1.) Rocks exhibit different properties. As to color, rocks may be dark, light, reddish, gray,
brown, yellow or even black.
2.) Rocks differ in texture in texture: Some are fine, others are rough.
3.) Some are glossy in appearance and smooth to touch.
4.) Most are hard, others are brittle.
ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS
Rocks are classified on the basis of the mode of formation. The three rock types are igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
1.) Igneous rocks – rocks that are formed from the solidification of molten rock material
(magma or lava). Molten rock material can solidify below the surface of the earth (plutonic igneous
rocks) or at the surface of the Earth (volcanic igneous rocks). Minerals are formed during the
crystallization of the magma. Note that the rate of cooling is one of the most important factors that
control crystal size and the texture of the rock in general.
• Magma – is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the earth.
• Lava – is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the earth through volcanic or fissure
eruptions.
• Plutonic or intrusive rocks – from solidified magma underneath the earth the process of
formation is gradual lowering of the temperature gradient at depth towards the surface would
cause slow cooling/crystallization. It has Phaneritic texture (Examples: granite, diorite, and
gabbro).
 • Volcanic or extrusive rocks – from solidified lava at or near the surface of the earth and the process
of formation is fast rate of cooling/crystallization due to huge variance in the temperature between Earth’s
surface and underneath. It has a common texture: aphanitic, porphyritic and vesicular (Examples: rhyolite,
andesite, basalt) and Pyroclastic rocks: fragmental rocks usually associated with violent or explosive type of
eruption (Examples tuff and pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite)).
• Igneous rocks are also classified according to silica content: felsic, intermediate, mafic and
ultramafic.
º felsic: also called granitic; >65% silica, generally light-colored
º intermediate: also called andesitic; 55-65% silica; generally medium colored (medium
gray)
º mafic: also called basaltic; 45-55% silica; generally dark colored
º ultramafic: <45% silica; generally, very dark colored; composed mainly of olivine and
pyroxene which are the major constituents of the upper mantle.
 2.) Sedimentary rocks – These are rocks that formed through the accumulation, compaction,
and cementation of sediments. They generally form at surface or near surface conditions.
• Sedimentary processes at or near the surface of the Earth include: weathering of rocks,
sediment transport and deposition, compaction and cementation.
• Factors in sedimentary processes: weathering and transport agents (water, wind ice)
Common sedimentary features: strata and fossils.
• Strata: >1cm is called bedding and anything less is called lamination; layering is the result of
a change in grain size and composition; each layer represents a distinct period of deposition.
• Fossils: remains and traces of plants and animals that are preserved in rocks.
❖ Non-clastic / Chemical/Biochemical – derived from sediments that precipitated from concentrated
solutions (e.g., seawater) or from the accumulation of biologic or organic material (e.g., shells, plant
material). They are further classified on the basis of chemical composition.
❖ Clastic/terrigenous – form from the accumulation and lithification of sediments derived from the
breakdown of pre-existing rocks.
They are further classified according to dominant grain size.
1. Conglomerate – relatively large and rounded clasts as compared to the
angular clasts of the breccia on top right.
2. Sandstone – with visible grains and prominent layering and claystone on
middle right with several embedded fossils.
3. Non-clastic sedimentary rocks limestone on bottom left and coquina on
bottom right.
 3.) Metamorphic rocks – rocks that form from the transformation of pre-existing rocks
(igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks) through the process of metamorphism. Metamorphism
can involve changes in the physical and chemical properties of rocks in response to heat, pressure, and
chemically active fluids. They are commonly formed underneath the earth through metamorphism.
❖ Contact metamorphism
• Heat as the main factor: occurs when a pre-existing rocks get in contact with a heat source
(magma)
• Occurs on a relatively small scale: around the vicinity of intruding magma
• Creates non-foliated metamorphic rocks (e.g., hornfels)
❖ Regional metamorphism
• Pressure as main factor: occurs in areas that have undergone deformation during orogenic
event resulting in mountain belts
• Occurs in a regional/large scale
• Creates foliated metamorphic rocks such as schist and gneiss
• Non-foliated rocks like marble also form thru regional metamorphism, where pressure is not
intense, far from the main geologic event.
 The rock cycle, illustrated in Figure above, depicts how the three major rock types – igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic - convert from one to another. Arrows connecting the rock types represent the processes that
accomplish these changes.
The Processes of the Rock Cycle
Several processes can turn one type of rock into another type of rock. The key processes of the rock
cycle are crystallization, erosion and sedimentation, and metamorphism.
Crystallization
Magma cools either underground or on the surface and hardens into an igneous rock. As the magma
cools, different crystals form at different temperatures, undergoing crystallization. For example, the mineral
olivine crystallizes out of magma at much higher temperatures than quartz. The rate of cooling determines
how much time the crystals will have to form. Slow cooling produces larger crystals.
Erosion and Sedimentation
Weathering wears rocks at the Earth’s surface down into smaller pieces. The small fragments are
called sediments. Running water, ice, and gravity all transport these sediments from one place to another by
erosion. During sedimentation, the sediments are laid down or deposited. In order to form a sedimentary rock,
the accumulated sediment must become compacted and cemented together.
Metamorphism
When a rock is exposed to extreme heat and pressure within the Earth but does not melt, the rock
becomes metamorphosed. Metamorphism may change the mineral composition and the texture of the rock.
For that reason, a metamorphic rock may have a new mineral composition and/or texture.